Biology Practical 2
Monoecious
having both male and female reproductive parts on the same individual
Dioecious
having male and female reproductive parts on separate indiviuals
integument
protective layer around the ovule; becomes the seed coat
pollen grain
in seed plants starts as a microspore and a gametophyte forms inside
pollen tube
male gamete type travel to the ovule through this (fallopian tube)
tracheids
a type of cell found in xylem; at maturity the cell is dead/hollow allows for movement of water and salts through the roots
lignin
in organic substance that is one of the main components of wood
fiber cells
cells in the xylem that are lignified and offer support
parenchyma
type of ground tissue; unspecialized plant tissue; makes up the bulk of the soft parts of the plant (cortex; pith;mesophyl)
sieve tube elements
cells of the phloem that conduct carbohydrates from leaves to the rest of the plant
cambium
thin layer to meristematic tissue
produces phloem on its outer surface
xylem on the inner surface
and increases the diameter of the stem/trunk
vascular bundles
groups of xylem and phloem cells
cork cells
cells that make up nonliving water resistant tissues
bark of the tree
cork cambium
layer of meristamatic tissue that becomes cells that become bark
rhizome
a modified underground stem
staminate cones
male strobili of the gymnosperms; where microsporangia/spore are formed
ovuliferous
females strobili of gymnosperms; contains megasporangia/ megaspores; then the megametaphyte and egg; eventually fertilized embryo
megaphylls
part of the female cone; modified leaves that bear megasporangia
micropyle
small gap in the integument surrounding the ovule; where male gametes enter to fertilize the egg
deciduous
plants that shed leaves at the end of the growing season
evergreens
plants that fully persist throughout the year
megasporocyte
cell that reduces megaspores
resin duct
tube in the stem or leaf
lined with cells that secrete resin
monoecious vs dioecious
mono- sex parts on the same tree (evergreens); pollen=sperm and cone=egg
dio-sex parts on separate individuals sporophyte-->sporophyll-->sporangia
Evolution of Seed and Vascular Tissues
Seed: composed of female gametophyte and egg cell within; prior to fertilization; embryo w/in seed in nourished by female gametophyte tissues that also serves as protective coat (integument of ovule); composed of 3 different genomes
Vascular tissues: (roots) serve two main functions
1)anchoring plant to substrate
2)absorption of water and nutrients from the soil
Phylum Cycadophyta
-dioecious
-mega/micro(female/male): sprorophyte; sporophyll; sporangia
Phylum Ginkophyta
-dioecious
-distinctive leaf and twig
-favor male plants because the fleshy seeds of the female trees tend to rot and small bad when fall
Phylum Coniferophyta
-pine trees; evergreens (cedar; juniper;spruce)
-leaves are modified; needles that produce resin
-monoecious (both genders same plant)
phylum Gnetophyta
-dioecious
-double fertilization: process involves the joining of a female gametophyte (megagametophyte, also called the embryo sac) with two male gametes (sperm)
**only gymnosperm phylum to have double fertilization
Scientific names of Species studied in Lab
-Zamia sp. Phylum Cycadophyta
-Gingkio sp. Phylum Ginkgophyta
-Pinus sp. Phylum Coniferophyta
-Ephedra trifurca sp. Phylum Gnetophyta
Difference in male and female cones in Phylum Conierophyta Pinus sp.
male: softer cone; produces pollen(sperm); smaller; deteriorates quickly(2 sperms cells; on fertilizes egg other sperm nucleus is absorbed)
female: gametophyte; megasporocyte produces 4 megaspore cells (3 abort/ 1 develops)
Succulents
thick fleshy parts that help store water in dry environments
Pollinators
animals that move pollen from anthers to the stigma of the flower
Flowers are comprised of 4 rings (modified leafs)
-sepals: outer whorl of the flower
-petals: colorful; attract pollinators
-stamens: contain microsporangia; includes a filament that supports the anther
-carpels: contain megasporangia; composed of stigma; style; ovary (contains ovules)
-pistil: two of more carpels fused together
coevolution
Example: flowers and pollinators
-when two or more species evolve together
stigma
top most part of the pistil where pollen lands and germinates
double fertilization
-pollen first germinates the stigma and produces pollen tube that penetrates(germinates) the style and enters the ovary to fertilize the female gametophyte (egg)
synergid (double fertilization)
A cell of the female gametophyte. There are two and they are located at the micropyle end of the embryo sac and near the egg. These cells help guide the pollen tube. The pollen tube grows towards and into one of these cells, the cell dissolves, the pollen tube stops growing and the sperm is released.
polar nuclei (double fertilization)
A cell of the female gametophyte. There are two. They fuse with one of the male sperm to form 3n (triploid) endosperm (nutritive tissue of the seed).
Epidermis
The outer most layer of the plant, may have. May be covered by the cuticle.
Cortex
The layer of tissue between the epidermis and the endodermis and vascular tissue of the plant. Used in starch storage and in the uptake of water and minerals.
Starch Granule
Glucose is water soluble and cannot be stored easily by plants. The glucose molecules produced during photosynthesis are combined to form this semi-crystalline structure
Atactostele
A type of eustele found in monocots. Vascular bundles are scattered throughout the stem.
Pith
Soft spongy tissue in the center of the stem. Parenchyma cells make up this tissue
Parenchyma
A type of ground tissue. These unspecialized cells make up a bulk of the plant biomass including the pith, cortex, and mesophyll
Mesophyll
In dicot leaves the layer of tissue just under the upper epidermis. The cells contain many chloroplasts. These cells are made of chlorenchyma cells (parenchyma cells with chloroplasts).
Parts of the flower
Carpel: Stigma; style ; and ovary
Stamen: Anther and filament
Petal
Ovule
Receptacle
Sepal
Difference between monocot and diocot
Mono: 1 cotyledon; fibrous roots; Actactostele (complex vascular bundles); parallel veins; floral X3
Dio: 2 cotyledons; taproot roots; Eustele ( vascular bundles in ring); netlike veins; floral X4 or 5
Importance of structures in plant leaves
structure and function
epidermis: waxy cucticle prevents water loss
stomata: allows water and gas exchange with the mesophyll; control by guard cell via turgor/pressure
parenchyma cells: site of photosynthesis
Eudicots Parenchyma cells
-differentiated into
palisade parenchyma:layer of tissue just under the upper epidermis. The cells contain many chloroplasts. These cells are made of chlorenchyma cells (parenchyma cells with chloroplasts)
spongy parenchyma: layer of tissue just above the lower epidermis. These cells contain fewer chloroplasts and are less tightly spaced to allow for diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide during respiration and photosynthesis
Importance of Storage Structures
-energy storing molecules (starch) overproduced and stored for limited time resources
-typically subterranean
-modified root, stem, or leaf tissue
Mycelium
the vegetative part of the fungus made up of many hyphae
hyphae
are threadlike filaments
Chytrid
group of primitive fungi that have flagellated zoospores; and are never filamentous
found in aquatic systems
often parasitic
Saprobic
describes an organisms that feeds on nonliving or decaying matter
secretes digestive enzymes and absorbs and digested material
Coenocytic
containing multiple nuclei in one cell
Septate
having dividers between cells
Haustoria
the appendages (in parasitic fungi) that penetrate the hosts tissue
Sporangia (fungi)
spore producing structures
Gametangia (fungi)
Gametate producing structure
Fruiting bodies (fungi)
a multicellular structure that contains spore-producing structures
Plasmogamy
fusion of the cytoplasm of two of more cells in fungi
Karyogamy
fusion of two cell nuclei in fungi
Dikaryon
having two nuclei in a cell in fungi
Heterokaryotic
having multiple genetic different nuclei in one cell (fungi)
Ectomycorrhizae (fungi)
fungi that for a symbiotic relationship with plants
fungus lives outside the roots of the plants
Endomycorrhizae (fungi)
symbiotic relationship with plants
fungus lives on the inside of the roots of the plant
Zygospore (fungi)
a thick walled spore that is formed during sexual reproduction
Sporangiosphores (fungi)
stalk that holds a sporangium
Ascus
A sac-shaped structure that produces spores
Occurs during sexual reproduction
Asocarp
large fruiting body that contain asci
Conidiophores
branched hypae that bear conidia
occurs during asexual reproduction in the Ascomycota
Condia
in the Ascomycota a asexual produce fungal spore
Basidium
A club shaped structure that bears spores
occurs during sexual reproduction
Basidiocarps
large fruiting bodies that bear basidia
Cell Wall (Fungi)
Made up of Chitin
Characteristics of Fungi
-decomposers (saprobes) chemoautotrophic
-feed by releasing enzymes into the environment and absorbs predigested organic compounds
-inhabit all environments
-non motile
-have no chlorophyl
-most are choenocytic and have multiple nuclei within a single cytoplasm (except for yeast)
-alteration of generations (haploid dominant)
Septate Vs. Aseptate
Septate: cells divided by cell walls; cell walls perforated
Aseptate: no cells walls between cells; multinucleate
Lichens and Symbiosis
-mutualism between cyanobacterium or green algae
-benefits of he algae is protected (housed) receive nutrients from the fungus
-benefits of fungus: photosynthetic sugars provided from algae
Growth forms: crustose (crusty); foliose (foliaged); fruticose (moss)
Sexual reproduction in Fungi
-most fungi reproduce sexually
-chitrid fungi: occurs by fusion of motile gametes to form a zygote
-other phyla: involves fusion of gametangia (fruiting bodies: releases sexual spores)
Difference between 4 Phyla of fungi and characteristics
Chytridomycota: mostly aquatic; many are parasitic on protists, plants, and animals; flagellated zoospores and gametes
Zygomycota: aseptate; sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction ex: bread mold (rhizopus)
Ascomycota: sac fungi; septate; sexually reproduced one round of meiosis followed by one round of mitosis; forms spores in asci (sacs)
Basidiomycota: club fungi; septate hypea; club shaped; basidiocarp has gills that house the basidia where basidospores are produced; long lived dikaryotic phase (shrooms; toadstools; rusts; shelf fungi; puffballs)
Parazoa (animal)
animals of this group DO NOT HAVE: tissues; organs; symmetry; gastrulation during embryonic development; Phyla Porifera is the only subkingdom
Metazoa (animal)
animals of this group DO HAVE: tissues; organs; symmetry; gastrulation during embryonic developments; includes all animals not in parazoa
Diploblastic (animal)
having two embryological germ layers
1) ectoderm
2)endoderm
Radial Symmetry (animal)
body plane of organism that can be divided into two mirror halves by a plane passing through any angle along the central axis
Ectoderm
outermost tissue layer
gives rise to the nervous system
Endoderm
innermost tissue layer
gives rise respiratory and digestive systems
Triploblastic
three embryological germ layers
1)endoderm
2)mesoderm
3)ectoderm
Bilateral symmetry
symmetry that can be divided into left and right halves along the central axis
include all the triploblastic animals in lab
Mesoderm
middle layer
gives rise to connective tissue; muscles/bones; and circulatory system
Cephalization
the concentration of neuro and sensory organs towards the anterior region of the body
nerve cord
a hollow dorsal tract contain nerve tissue
incurrent pore
openings where water enter into the spongeocoel also called: ostium
spongeocoel
in Porifera the central cavity of the sponge
excurrent opening
water exists
also called the: osculum
choanocyte
flagellated cells lining the spongeoecoel
maintain the flow of water through the sponge and capture food
aka: collar cells
Amoebocytes
cells that phagocytize food captured by choanocytes
food distributed all over
all cells that look like ameobo
mesohyl
the gelatinous matrix between the outermost layer of cells and choanocytes
amoebocytes travel in this
spicules
needle like fibers that give structures to the sponge
can be made of CaCO3 and silica
gastrovascular cavity
gastro: gut
vascular: circulation
organ that forms both ^
epidermis
the outermost layer of tissue
develops the ectoderm
polyp
one of the two body planes of Cnidarian
sessile attached at foot to substrate
hollow cylindrical body
medusa
one of the two body planes of Cnidarian
motile=moves
dome or umbrella shape
typical jellyfish
Cnidocytes
stinging cells in Cnidarian
Cnidae
capsule like organelles that release the nematocyst (venom)
nematocyst
barbed hollow coiled tube in Cnadocytes
injects toxin into prey
hermaphrodites
having both female and male reproductive organs
gemnules
cluster of cells made of ameobocytes
surrounded by spicules that develops into a new individual
asexual reproduction
hypostome
elevated mound of tissue that contains the mouth opening
spermatozoa
mature male gamete (sperm)
Gastrodermis
in Cnidarian the inner layer of the gastrovascular cavity
Ova
the female reproductive cell (egg)
Mesoglea
the gelatinous material that separates inner and outer cell layers
proglottids
the segment of a tapeworm that contains both male and female reproductive organs
Scolex
the head of the tapeworm with specialized hook and suckers that attach the intestinal lining
Characteristic of Porifera
-Aquatic (mostly marine but some are freshwater)
-multicellular (but lack true tissues/organs)
-cells show division of labor
-filter feeders
Three body types of sponges
1) Asconoid: simple/small; the Ostia are open directly to the spongeoceol
2)Syconoid: the intermediate; Ostia open into chambers that open into the spongeoceol
3) Leuconoid: comples; Ostia open into cannals that with multiple chamber that lead to spongeoceol
Characteristics of Cnidaria
-Radial symmetry
-true tissue and primitive neural net
-Cnidocytes: stinging cells
-body structures: polyp and medusa
Body Structures of Cnidaria:
-epidermis: nerve and muscle tissue; contains the cnidocytes
-mesoglea: non cellular jelly layer
-gastrodermis: ingestion and egestion; secretes digestive enzymes into coelenterons
-
Reproduction of Cnidaria
Obelia colony: reproductive polyps and gonangia
Hydra: hermaphrodites; reproduces sexually and asexually; Gonozoids
-Cnidaria: reproductive organs develop in the lining of the gut
Reproduction of Planaria
reproduce asexually (worms did in lab)
regenerates both its anterior and its posterior
Characteristics Phylum Platyhelminthes
-marine, fresh-water, damp soil, or parasitic
-Triploblastic
-Body: solid tissue; no fluid cavity (acoelomate)
-gas and nutrient exchange must be from cell to cell (flat dorsal-ventral surface)
-Types of Platyhelminthes
tapeworms:
parasites of vertebrate digestive tracts
scolux: head with suckers and hook; attaches to intestine
no digestive system
proglottids: segments full of reproductive organs
flatworms:
-free living ex: planaria
-eyespot: phototaxis
-regeneration: asexually
flukes:
-Ex: Chlonorchis (snail, fish, human bile-duct)
-parasites with vertebrates with intricate life-cycles
Characteristics of Mollusks and Annelids
Protostomes I. Soft-bodied Invertebrates
-Bilateria (bilateral symmetry)
-Tripoblastic (3 germ layers)
-Trochophore: larvae
-Cephalization: concentration of neuro and sensory organs towards the anterior region of the body
-Segmentation (metamerism) repetition of body units
Phylum Molusca
-most soft-bodied protected by external shell made of CaCO3
-Foot: used for propulsion
-Mantale: secretes shell
-Radula : a rasping organ covered with chintinous teeth
-complete digestive system
Phylum Molusca: Class Polyplacophora
-Chitons
-marine
-graze algae from rocks ( with large oval foot)
-body made of 8 overlapping plates
-body dorso-ventrally flattened
Phylum Molusca: Class Gastropoda
(snails & slugs; nudibranches)
-marine; f/w; terrestrial
-graze on algae and plants
-torsion: during development visceral cavity twists so that mantel cavity is positioned above the mouth
Phylum Molusca: Class Bivalvia
(clams; oysters; mussels; scallops)
-marine and f/w
-laterally compressed body between two valves (shells)
-lack: eyes;radula; suspension feeders
-gills function in gas exchange and feeding
Phylum Molusca: Class Ce phalopoda
"head foot"
(squid; octopuses, and nautiluses)
-marine: fast; voracious predators
-foot modified as tentacles
-move backward; by water jet propulsion
-shell absent or reduced to internal cuttlebone (except Natutilus retains outer shell)
Plylum Annelida
-segmented worm
-complete digestive system
-closed circulatory system
-muscle tissue for locomotion develops from mesodermal tissues
-well developed nervous system
Longitudinal and Circular muscles in Annelids
Locomotion
-Contraction of the circular muscles
makes the worm thinner, but because liquid is essentially
incompressible the increase in pressure forces the liquid outwards
stretching the worm (becomes longer and thinner)
-Contraction of the longitudinal fibers
shortens the worm, pushed the coelom liquid out to the sides; making
the worm fatter
Plylum Annelida: Class Oligochaeta
-terrestrial and f/w segmented worms
-important to decomposition and soil areation (hollow diggings of the worms)
-Complete digestive system with functional regions: pharynx; esophagus; crop; intestine
-septae: partitions of body wall between segments
Annelida: Oligochaeta (earthworms) Reproduction
-simultaneous hermaphrodites (cross-fertilization)
-Fertilization takes place externally
-after mating when the eggs are shed through the female gonopore onto a collar of mucus released by the clitellum; passed over opening of seminal receptacles where stored sperm is released onto the eggs
-the collar slips off the anterior end (head) of the worm and becomes cocoon for developing embryo
-male gonopores (segment 15) sperm exists during mating and stored in seinal receptacles (segments 9&10)
Phylum Annelida: Class Polychaeta
(mostly marine segmented worms)
-"many setae" parapodia used in locomotion
-each parapodium has setae (bristles) made of chitin
-parapodium function as gills in some species
-external fertilization
Ex: Lugworm and Nereis (clam worm)
Plylum Annelida: Class Hirudinea
(leeches)
-f/w and moist terrestrial habitats
-blood sucking parasite
-feed infrequently; engorge themselves then digest slowly
-reduced circulatory system
-simultaneous hermaphrodites
-develops w/in cocoon
Characteristics of Nematodes and Arthropods
Protostomes II. Animals with Ecdysis
-common ancestor that evolved a relatively hardened exoskeleton that does not grow with the organism;has to be shed and regrown periodically
Phylum Nematoda
(roundworms)
-most abundant and widespread animals in the world
-habitat: aquatic; damp soil; parasitic (plants & animals)
-complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
-no circulatory system
-longitudinal muscles only
Symbiotic relationship of Nematodes
Parasitic worms
Ascaris- large intestinal parasite of pigs and humans; males have hook on posterior end
Trichinella spiralis- parasite of humans; pigs; and rats; agent that causes trihinosis; get from eating undercook pork
Wuchereria- responsible for the human tropical DZ: Elephantiasis
others: pinworm; hookworm
Phylum Arthropods
(animals with jointed appendages)
-segmented (important to specialize regions)
-open circulatory system
-metamorphosis
Metamorphosis/ molting
-change in body form that occurs as some arthropods become adults
-Ecdysis: simple form; arthropod sheds the cuticle and basically becomes a larger version of the same form ex: grasshopers; crustaceans; millipedes; centipedes
-Holometabolus: complex form; go through a pupal stage; ex: formation of a cocoon by a caterpillar that emerges into butterfly (grub-->beetle and maggot-->fly)
-H emimetabolous: begin as aquatic nymphs and show ecdysis simple metamorphosis; Ex: damselfies and dragonflies
Phylum Arthropoda: Subphylum Trilobita
-extinct 250 mya
-segmentated
-relatively unspecialized appendages
Phylum Arthropoda: Subphylum Chelicerata
-cephalothorax + abdomen
-all appendages attached to cephalothorax
-no antenea
Class Merostoma: Horseshoe crabs:
-heavily armored carapace (protection)
-Telson: tail-like appendage
-4 additional appendages
-Book gills: fan back and forth
Class Arachnida: (scorpians; spiders; ticks and mites)
-pedipalps: 2nd pair of appendages (sensing/feeding organs)
-4 pairs of walking legs
Spiders:
-fangs for injecting venom
-pedicel: where cephalothorax meets abdomen
-Spinnerets: produce silk/ webs
-Book lungs: spiracles/slits (allow gas exchange through the cuticle)
Scorpions:
-abdomen more segmented (obvious)
-stinger: subdue prey; defense
-Spiders:
Phylum Arthropoda: Subphylum Crustacea
-primarily aquatic (mostly marine)
-characterized by jointed appendages
-head; thorax; abdomen
-many molt through different body stages
Ex: copepods; lobster; crabs; shrimp; crayfish; barnecles
Phylum Arthropoda: Subphylum Uniramia
(arthropods with unbranched appendages)
-characterized with appendages with ONE branch (enable gripping of walking surfaces)
-evolved on land
-head; thorax; abdomen
-one pair of antenae
Class Chilopoda (centipedes)
-predators on small inverterbrates
-1st pair of legs: fang-like appendages
-each segment has one pair of legs
Class Diplopoda (millipedes)
-harmless decomposers: feed mainly on decaying vegetation
-emit foul smelling secretion when feel threatened
-each segment has two pairs of legs