each hemisphere is chiefly concerned with functions on the opposite side of the body.

Contralateral

some functions only occur in one hemisphere.
Right usually intuitive and creative (art & music).
Left usually logical and analytical (math & science).

Lateralization

Three types of functional areas:

Motor, Sensory, Association

Houses conscious mind (e.g., reasoning, emotion, memory, sensory input, language, voluntary movements).

Cerebral Cortex

Primary motor cortex is located in the

precentral gyrus

Voluntary control of skeletal muscle contraction

Primary motor cortex

Controls repetitious or patterned motor skills

Premotor cortex

Voluntary eye movement is in the

Frontal eye field

Directs muscles of speech production.
Involved in planning speech.
Usually only on left side.

Broca’s area

Broca’s area is located?

only on left side.

What are the four main motor areas of cortex?

Primary motor cortex, Premotor cortex, Frontal eye field and Broca’s area

mapping of body in CNS structures

Somatotopy

General Pathway of Sensory Input are?

Sensory receptors,Primary sensory cortex,Sensory association cortex, Multinodal association cortex

Detect stimulus and send message to brain.

Sensory receptors

Primary sensory cortex Interprets

basic aspects of sensory input.

Sensory association cortex

Uses prior knowledge to put sensory input into correct context.

Integrates many inputs to make decisions.

Multinodal association cortex

Somatic sensation: Primary somatosensory cortex

General senses (pain, touch, temperature).
Spatial discrimination.

part of cortex that stored a memory
“Feels like sandpaper

Somatosensory association cortex

sensations on left side of body go to right hemisphere.

Contralateral

Primary visual cortex

Somatotopic map of retina.

Visual association cortex

Associates images with previous knowledge base.
Damage causes inability to comprehend images

Primary visual cortex

Identifies color, edges (shape), and movement.
Damage causes functional blindness.

Primary visual cortex is located in

occipital lobe area

Auditory areas are Primary auditory cortex are located?

inferior end of the post central gyrus in the temporal region

Interprets pitch, loudness, location.

Primary auditory cortex

if damage happens to the primary cortex you are

functionally blind

Auditory association cortex are

Sound linked to known types.

Gustatory cortex is

Sensation of taste

Gustatory cortex is located

deep on the insula

Part of lg part of rhinencephalon.

Olfactory cortex

What does the rhinencephalon do?

processes emotion

Olfaction has a strong connection with emotion

Visceral sensory area is on

the insula

Visceral sensory means

sensory information coming from viscera internal organs, bladder heart lungs

Vestibular (equilibrium) cortex

close to auditory cortex in the insula sends information (equilibrium)

Multinodal Association Areas (MAAs)

to have more complex connections with multiple inputs and multiple outputs.

There are three MAAs:

Anterior,Posterior,Limbic

Store information in memory.
Give meaning to information and choose responses.
Relay decisions to premotor cortex

General functions:Multinodal Association Areas (MAAs)

Multinodal Association Areas

Relay decisions to premotor cortex

Anterior association area is in the

Prefrontal cortex: anterior area of the frontal lobe

Involved with:Intellect.Complex learning. Recall (memory),personality

Anterior association

lobotomy was preformed in this area

Prefrontal cortex

Involved with: Recognizing patterns.
Placing self in space or surroundings.
Integrating many different inputs

Posterior association area

is important in understanding written and spoken language.

Wernicke’s area

Working memory is used for abstract ideas, judgment, reasoning, and planning.

Anterior association area(Prefrontal cortex)

Prefrontal cortex is the last area of the brain to?

fully develop

teenagers have problems associated with this area the _______ because it is the last area of the brain to fully develop.

function Prefrontal cortex

Posterior association area is

Recognizing patterns mostly temporal lobe

Wernicke’s area is located

Posterior association area on the left hemisphere

Limbic Association Area are located around the?

Cingulate gyrus,Parahippocampal gyrus,Hippocampus
(deep)

The three areas Multinodal Association Areas are

Anterior association area,Posterior association area, and the Limbic Association Area

Limbic Association Area provides

emotional impact that makes something important.
experiences and events

Limbic Association can

fast track events into long-term memory

awareness of sensation, voluntary control of movement, and higher mental processing (memory, logic, judgment, etc.).

Consciousness

brief loss of consciousness.
Usually due to loss of blood flow or low blood pressure.

Fainting (syncope)

prolonged state of unconsciousness from a which a person cannot be aroused.

Coma

state of partial unconsciousness from which a person can be aroused

Sleep

where was Corey during the September 11 attacks?

sitting on a hill in Costa Rica counting birds

storage and retrieval of information.

Memory

Two stages: of memory

Short-term (working) memory, Long-term memory

(fact) memory
Entails learning information (words, dates, etc.).
Usually remembered in context.
Example: memorizing friends’ phone numbers.

Declarative

(skills) memory
Acquired through experience, often with repetition.
Hard to unlearn.
Examples: playing the piano, riding a bicycle

Procedural

Cerebral White Matter

Myelinated axons bundled into tracts

Hypnograms are?

RECORDING OF SLEEP ACTIVITY

Cerebral White Matter: connect corresponding parts of the two hemispheres.

Commissure

Cerebral White Matter: connect different parts of the same hemisphere.

Association

Cerebral White Matter: connect cerebrum to other brain structures or spinal cord.

Projection

Efferent are?

(motor)

REM means

rapid eye movement

REM occurs because you?

involuntary contractions of eye muscles rapid movement of eye

Dreaming happens in the REM state

REM state

Islands of gray matter deep within white matter that receive input from entire cerebral cortex

Basal Nuclei

Basal Nuclei is Responsible for

directing body movements starting, stopping, and planning the intensity of body movements.

Parkinson disease,Huntington disease Disorders that affect the?

basal nuclei show symptoms that distort these functions. function with body movements

Substantia nigra (in midbrain} makes most of

the dopamine in the brain

Corpus callosum is the largest

Commissure

two main projections in the cerebral tracks are

Internal capsule and Corona radiata

how many basil nucleus are in each hemisphere?

0ne

Functionally associated with: Subthalamic nuclei

in diencephalon)

what is the functional name for the post central gyrus?

primary

Diencephalon: Largely gray matter that surrounds the third ventricle, in three parts what are they?

Thalamus, Hypothalamus,Epithalamus

Comprises 80% of diencephalon.

Thalamus

Thalamus is a

Primary relay station for signals to cerebral cortex.
Sorts and edits incoming information.

Main visceral control center of body

Hypothalamus

Diencephalon make up what precent of brain mass?

three or four

Cerebrum makes up what percent of brain mass?

eighty

what are the four primary brain structures

Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Limbic System, Brain Stem

The cerebrum or cortex is the

largest part of the human brain,

associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections, called "lobes": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe.

cerebrum or cortex

associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving

Frontal Lobe

associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli

Parietal Lobe

associated with visual processing

Occipital Lobe

associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech

Temporal Lobe

often referred to as the "emotional brain

The limbic system,

The limbic system,contains the

thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus

This structure is responsible for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure

the brain stem.

The brain stem is made of the

midbrain, pons, and medulla.

Diencephalon is made up of

gray matter

Thalamus is the

Primary relay station

Hypothalamus Functions its a

control center of the ANS autonomic nervous system

ANS control center.Center for emotional response.
Body temperature regulation.Regulation of food intake.
Regulation of water balance and thirst.Regulation of sleep-wake cycle. Control of endocrine system functions.with the association of the pituitary gland

Hypothalamus Functions

Hypothalamus controls the

pituitary gland

the connection between the endocrin and nervous system is the

Hypothalamus & pituitary gland

most of the ANS functions originate with the

Hypothalamus

White matter tracts with gray matter nuclei that produce rigidly programmed, automatic behaviors necessary for survival

Brainstem

Visual and auditory reflexes

Midbrain

Connects motor cortex to cerebellum

Pons

Cardiac center, Vasomotor center,Respiratory center
Non-vital reflexes cough, sneeze, vomit, swallow

Medulla oblongata

Some of these functions are coordinated by the hypothalamus and carried out by the medulla

Cardiac center, Vasomotor center,Respiratory center
Non-vital reflexes cough, sneeze, vomit, swallow

Ten of the twelve

Receives inputs from multiple sources to provide precise timing and patterns for coordinated body movements

Cerebellum

Cerebellar peduncles connections to brainstem are?

Inferior Middle Superior

sensory info on body position.

Inferior peduncles

cortical info on desired movements.

Middle peduncles

sends movement signals to cerebral motor cortex.

Superior peduncles

on the Posterior side are where you have auditory and visual reflexs

Inferior colliculi & Superior colliculi

Networks that span large areas rather than being localized in a small region.

Functional Brain Systems

Limbic system Parts of cerebrum and diencephalon Forms the?

emotional brain.

Cerebellum is responsible for

positioning the body and direction

peduncles do what?

connects cerebellum to other structures

Reticular formation Formed by

core of brainstem.

What on the Cerebellum is not contralateral.

Somatotopic map controls same side

Filters nearly 99% of sensory information.never makes it to consciousness
Maintains alert wakefulness of cerebral cortex.

reticular activating system

main part of the Reticular formation is

reticular activating system (RAS)

Damage in the _____ can lead to coma

Reticular formation

Sensory Processing Disorder can

Sensory avoiders – RAS does not filter enough.seek quietness
Sensory seekers – RAS filters too much. hit head

Helps express emotion & Helps resolve mental conflicts when frustrated

Cingulate gyrus

damage to the Amygdala

wont show proper fear response

is cause by a lack of function in the Cingulate gyrus difficulty expressing emotion & resolving frustration

Autism

stores Memory of emotional responses.
Assesses danger Elicits fear response

Amygdala

RAS filters too much. hit head on wall

Sensory seekers

RAS does not filter enough.seek quietness dont like to be touched

Sensory avoiders

Peripheral nervous system PNS is broken down in two divisions

sensory and motor

Three main parts of the Peripheral

Sensory receptors,Peripheral neurons, Motor nerve endings

Peripheral neurons
Afferent (sensory)

(sensory)

Sensory receptors

detect stimuli

these carry to or away from CNS

Peripheral neurons

Motor nerve endings

makes a synapse with another structure muscle or glands

a change in neuron’s environment is a

Stimulus

the receptor will depolarize and initiate an impulse to the CNS.

Upon detection of a stimulus,

receptors that detect mechanical forces (e.g., touch, movement

Mechanoreceptors

mechanical forces are

touch, vibration sound

Mechanical forces deform the receptor, causing it to

generate an action potential

receptors that detect muscle length (stretch).

Proprioreceptors

receptors that detect fluid (blood) pressure.
.

Baroreceptors

receptors that detect touch.

Tactile receptors

How are sensory receptors classified if they are grouped based on the cue that activates the cell?

Classification of receptors by stimulus

What are the three ways that sensory receptors can be classified?

Stimulus,Location,Complexity

What are nociceptors?

Response to damaged stimuli and cause pain

What are mechanoreceptors? What are some examples of what they detect?

Responsive to mechanical forces
Touch, vibration, pressure, stretch

receptors that detect sounds change shape

Hair cells

detect temperature changes.
Mostly located in skin.
Two subtypes: warm and cold.

Thermoreceptors

cold Thermoreceptors

decrease in tempature

warm Thermoreceptors

increase in tempature

detect chemicals in solution.
Subtypes include:
Olfaction – smell.
Gustation – taste.
Blood sampling – detect solute (e.g., CO2, Na+) levels

Chemoreceptors

two chemicals in solution

Olfaction – smell & Gustation – taste

(pain receptors) detect tissue damage or stimuli associated with a condition that could damage tissue.
Located throughout body, except for brain

Nociceptors

detect light Found in retina of the eye.

Photoreceptors

Nociceptors are Located throughout body, except

for brain

the five classes of Stimulus receptors

Mechanoreceptors, Nociceptors, Photoreceptors, Chemoreceptors & Thermoreceptors

decrease in sensitivity to the presence of a continuing stimulus. coins on arm or getting used to a smell

Sensory adaptation

receptors do adapt to stimuli. most receptors are

Phasic

receptors do not adapt to stimuli.
Includes nociceptors and most proprioreceptors.

Tonic

Stimulus Location: stimulus occurs outside the body.

Exteroreceptors

Stimulus Location: stimulus occurs inside the body.Visceroreceptors Proprioreceptors

Interoreceptors

Structural Complexity

simple or complexed

general senses, single cell General senses Dendritic endings may be: Encapsulated or Unencapsulated

Simple

make up your Special senses, multiple cells organized into sensory organs.

Complex

Dendritic endings that are covered are

Encapsulated

Unencapsulated dendritic endings and encapsulated dendritic endings are two groups within what division of sensory receptor complexity called?

Simple receptors

Dendritic endings that are naked are

Unencapsulated

multiple cells organized into sensory organs.
Special senses.

Complex

Sensation of stimuli must be integrated into perception

Sensory Integration

– detection and conduction to CNS

Receptor level

processing in ascending pathways.

Circuit level –

processing cortical centers (conscious awareness of sensation

Perceptual level –

Somatosensory organization

Receptor level, Circuit level, Perceptual level

bundles of axons

Visceral pain sensation travels along same pathways as cutaneous pain sensation Leads to

referred pain

vasicules are from

whole nerve

Within a nerve, each axon is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the

endoneurium

The axons are bundled together into groups called

fascicles

each fascicle is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the

perineurium

ntire nerve is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the

epineurium

conduct signals from sensory neurons to the central nervous system

Efferent

What is a fascicle? (in terms of nerve structure)

bundle of axons within a nerve

What is an efferent only nerve? Afferent only?

Efferent only - motor only
Afferent only - sensory only

What types of information are sent to the brain from proprioceptors?

information related to body structure, position and stretch

What is the difference between complex and simple receptors?

Complex- sense organs
Simple- modified dendritic endings

has all sensory axons all going to the CNS

Sensory nerve

carries all axons away from the CNS

Motor nerve

the vagus nerve goes to torso

has sensory and motor axons

Vagus extends into

Twelve pairs. are numbered

anterior to posterior

Purely sensory:

Mostly sensory:

Mixed

Mostly motor

Dorsal = sensory goes

into soinal cord

Ventral = motor goes

out of spinal cord

Ventral form the

plexes

Dermatomes

Dermatomes are

area of skin innervated by sensory axons of a particular spinal nerve.

Nerve Plexuses

C1 to C5 is the –

Cervical plexus

C4 to T1 is the

Brachial plexus

L1 to L5
is the

Lumbar plexus anterior part of leg

L4 to Co
is the

Sacral plexus posterior part of leg

same plexus is called the

lubbo sacral plexus

two divisions of the ANS is

Sympathetic & Parasympathetic

fight or flight response

Sympathetic

rest and repair

Parasympathetic

runs unconsciously

ANS autonomic nervous system

Somatic NS

Somatic Nervous system always uses

ACH neurotransmitter

Somatic Nervous system is always

excitatory

Pathway consists of single neuron from CNS to effector

Somatic NS

Thick axon is heavily myelinated.

SNS

Neurotransmitter is ACh or NE

ANS

Pathways consists of two-neuron chain from CNS to effector.

Autonomic nervous system

Parasympathetic

int the Parasympathetic Long axons are.

preganglionic

in the Parasympathetic Very short axons are.

postganglionic

Sympathetic

in the Sympathetic the ____ preganglionic axons form plexuses.

Shorter

in the Sympathetic the ____ postganglionic axons.

Longer

Preganglionic axon are

Lightly myelinated

Parasympathetic & Sympathetic have

opposing effects

Postganglionic axon are

Unmyelinated

Parasympathetic division is also known as the

Craniosacral

Sympathetic division is also known as the

Thoracolumbar

Sympathetic

increases

Parasympathetic

decrease

Digestion
(salivation, enzyme production, motility)

Parasympathetic increases and the Sympathetic decreases

in the penis Parasympathetic causes

Erection

in the penis Sympathetic causes

Ejaculation

Receptors are usually modified endings of single neurons.
Widespread, all over body.

general senses touch temperature

Receptors are in sensory tissues or organs.Localized, confined to head.

special senses

an organism’s perception of
its world. Based on a blending of
general and special senses

Umwelt

Umwelt means

a perceptional world is different than another

inner Tunics of Eye is called the

retina

Anterior segment – aqueous humor.
Posterior segment – vitreous humor

more sensitive to light only have one pigment cannot see color

rods

see in colors the three colors are AND less sensitive to light

cones, RED GREEN AND BLUE

refract (bend) light waves entering the eye

both cornea and lens

The ____is fixed, but the

cornea

flexible so it can adjust the degree of refraction

lens

Myopic eye means you are

nearsighted up close far away blurry

Hyperopic eye means you are

farsighted see far away up close is blurry

Emmetropic eye means you are

normal

Rods contain a pigment called rhodopsin. When rhodopsin absorbs light it splits into retinal and opsin.
Opsin activates transducin (G protein).
Transducin activates phosphodiesterase (PDE).
PDE converts cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) into GMP.
Falling cGMP levels close cation channels leading to membrane hyperpolarization.
Degree of hyperpolarization is proportional to intensity of light.
Hyperpolarization stops release of an inhibitory neurotransmitter (glutamate) at synapses with bipolar cells.
No longer inhibited, the bipolar cells depolarize and release excitatory neurotransmitters on the ganglionic cells.
EPSPs in the ganglionic cells generate an action potential that travels along the optic nerve to the brain.
The brain interprets the pattern of impulses into an image

Phototransduction in Rods

Rods contain a pigment called .

rhodopsin

in Phototransduction what stops release of an inhibitory neurotransmitter (glutamate) at synapses with bipolar cells.

Hyperpolarization

When rhodopsin absorbs ______ into retinal and opsin.

light it splits

Similar to rods, but much less sensitive to light.

Stimulation of Cones

The pigments (photopsins or iodopsins) are formed by retina,and _____ (in red cones).

erythrolabe

The pigments (photopsins or iodopsins) are formed by retina,and ______(in green cones).
cyanolabe (in blue cones).

chlorolabe

The pigments (photopsins or iodopsins) are formed by retina,and ______(in green cones).
cyanolabe (in blue cones).

chlorolabe

Detection of chemicals dissolved into solution is called

Chemoreception

Two chemoreceptive special senses are

Olfaction (smell)
Organ is olfactory epithelium.
Receptors are olfactory receptor cells.

Gustation (taste)
Organs are taste buds.
Receptors are gustatory cell

retinal and opsin

what is vitamin A?

retinal

retinal is important for?

vision

steps in Phototransduction step 1

rhodopsin absorbs light it splits retinal and opsin

steps in Phototransduction step 2

Opsin activates transducin

steps in Phototransduction step 3

Transducin activates PDE

steps in Phototransduction step 4

PDE converts (cGMP) into GMP.

steps in Phototransduction step 5

cGMP levels close cation channels

steps in Phototransduction step 6

stops release glutamate

steps in Phototransduction step 7

depolarize and release excitatory neurotransmitters onto ganglionic cells.

steps in Phototransduction step 8

EPSPs in the ganglionic

steps in Phototransduction step 9

The brain interprets

steps in Olfactory Transduction

In cones, seeing variations in color if your seeing light blue

blue and green cones

In cones, seeing variations in color if your seeing orange or yellow

red cones and green cones

In cones, seeing variations in color if your seeing white

red, blue green cones

Olfaction (smell) the organs are

olfactory epithelium

Gustation (taste)organs are

taste buds

Olfactory receptor cell have

Olfactory cilia

Odor molecules (odorants) bind to receptor proteins in membrane of olfactory cilia.

Olfactory Transduction (Smelling)Step 1

Receptor activates G protein.

Olfactory Transduction (Smelling)Step 2

G protein activates adenylate cyclase.

Olfactory Transduction (Smelling)Step3

Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP.

Olfactory Transduction (Smelling)Step 4

cAMP binds to cation channel.

Olfactory Transduction (Smelling)Step 5

Influx of cations (Na+ and Ca++) depolarizes cell.

Olfactory Transduction (Smelling)Step 6

The depolarized cell transmits an impulse to a neuron in the olfactory bulb, which carries the signal to the brain

Olfactory Transduction (Smelling)Step 7

Olfactory Transduction (Smelling)Step 1

Most taste buds are associated with the ,_________ but they occur throughout the oral cavity and pharynx

papillae of the tongue

the inner ear holds receptors for

hearing and equilibrium.

taste buds are

Gustatory cell

Gustatory cell have

Gustatory hairs

high level sour tastes can be

damaging to tissues

low level Sour detects

ascorbic acids and vitamin's

Taste Types Sour detects

acids

Taste Types Sweet detects

many carbohydrates, some proteins.

sweet tastes represent

energy for the body

Taste Types Salty detects

inorganic salts (ions)

Taste Types Bitter detects

alkaloids, spoiled foods, some toxins.

Bitter is what your

body don't want

Umami only reconized for the last

20 years

Umami detects

the presents of proteins

Umami means

Delicious taste

Taste Types Umami detects

glutamic acid.

Air
Tympanic membrane
Ossicles
Perilymph (of scala vestibuli)
Basilar membrane

how Sound waves (vibrations) are passed

outer ear is called

Auricle pinna

outer edge of the Auricle is called

Helix

Ear canal is called

(external auditory meatus,
external acoustic meatus

outer ear consist of the

Auricle Helix Lobule Ear canal Tympanic membrane (ear drum)

Middle Ear consist of the

Auditory ossicles: Malleus (hammer)Incus anvil)
stapes (stirrup)

This bone is attached to the Tympanic membrane

Malleus (hammer)

vibrations are passed along the

Auditory ossicles

when the stapes vibrates it pushes

on the oval window transfering vibrations to a fluid on the otherside of the membrane

Phayngotympanic tube allows

air to move swallow or yawn

in order for the Tympanic membrane to vibrate properly

air pressure has to be equal on both sides

Muscle that attaches to the Malleus is called

Tensor tympani muscle

Muscle that attaches to the stapes is called

Stapedius muscle

when the Tensor tympani muscle & Stapedius muscle contract it causesthe bones to

vibrate less dampen loud sounds

Cochlea is the organ for

hearing

Semicircular canals are attached to the

Vestibule

Semicircular & Vestibule are associated with

equilibrium

ear infections happen

in the middle ear

ear infections are dangerous because when fluids put pressure on the

Tympanic membrane

When stereocilia bend against the tectorial membrane,

the hair cells depolarize and send impulses to brain

Frequency is perceived as pitch.Short wavelength =

high frequency

High frequency sounds displace the _____ closer to the oval window.

basilar membrane

Tectorial membrane is

stiff and dosent move

Used to help body maintain posture and balance

Equilibrium

what membrane slides across hair cells

Otolithic membrane

are bent in direction of slide

Stereocilia

If stereocilia bend toward kinocilium,

hair cell depolarizes (increases impulse frequency

If stereocilia bend away from kinocilium, hair cell

hyperpolarizes (decreases impulse frequency)

Utricle are

horizontal movements.

Saccule are

vertical movements.

Types of Equilibrium -Static

Linear acceleration forces in a line

Types of Equilibrium - Dynamic

Rotational acceleration forces spinning

Dynamic Receptor organ is crista ampullaris, found in ampullae of semicircular canal

Anterior Posterior Lateral

in static equilibrium the Receptor organ is called

a macula, found in vestibule:

the two macula found in the vestibule are

Utricle, Saccule

Receptor organ is crista ampullaris, found in ampullae of

semicircular canal

deep pitch

longer wave length

high pitch

shorter wave length

longer wave length

pushes down through the scale of Scala vestibuli
away from stapes

shorter wave length

moves down the scale of media close to stapes

Stereocilia are damaged the hair

brakes off

Vision,Proprioreceptors,Vestibular apparatus
Vestibule,Semicircular canals together to get

sense of equilibrium

in the Endocrine System the signals are

hormones

Endocrine System Works with nervous system to

coordinate and control activity of body cells

in the Endocrine System Signals

may persist for long periods

in the Endocrine System Signals

are hormones

in the Endocrine System Signals

Responses are slower

in the Endocrine System Signals

Responses are more prolonged

Major Endocrine Glands that produce hormones are

the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal body, and the reproductive organ

Pineal Pituitary thyroid Parathyroid and Adrenal glands

Hypothalamus assoiated and connected to it is

Pituitary GLAND

assioated with the brain

decreases in size when you age

Thymus

Endocrine glands lack

ducts

Exocrine glands usually sweat, sebaceous, salivary.

have ducts

Produce chemical messengers called hormones

Endocrine glands

affect distant cells

Endocrine

affect same cell.

Autocrine

affect neighboring cells

Paracrine

Two structural groups of hormones are

Amino acid based hormones & Lipid hormones

Lipid hormones are

Mostly steroids synthesized from cholesterol.
Includes sex hormones, aldosterone, cortisol.

Amino acid based hormones are

Amino acids, peptides, and proteins.
Includes majority of endocrine gland secretions

Most hormones are regulated by

negative feedback loops

uses a positive feedback loop

Oxytocin

Humoral Stimulus

A change in the concentration of a substance in body fluids causes hormone release

Neural Stimulus

Nerve fibers innervate the gland and stimulate release

Hormonal Stimulus

Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary to release hormones that stimulate other glands

As a whole most of the endocrine hormones are

Amino acids base

Hypothalamus releases

TRH

TRH has a positive effect on the Anterior pituitary causing it to release

TSH

TSH has a positive effect on the Thyroid gland releases

TH

When TH levels increase that acts as an inhibitor on the

Hypothalamus & pituitary

Hormone Receptors Membranous are

embedded in cell membrane

Hormone Receptors Intracellular is

inside the cell

Hormones generally regulate

homeostasis and slow, long-term processes

Receptor Regulation

A change in the number of cellular receptors

A change in the number of cellular receptors

Up-regulation =
Usually because of insufficient hormone levels.

increase.

Receptor Regulation Down-regulation
Usually because of excessive hormone levels

decrease.

Up-regulation =

With Type II diabetes mellitus, _____ This makes cells less responsive to insulin

cells down-regulate insulin receptors.

Pituitary Gland Has two lobes

Anterior lobe adenohypophysis
Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
Neural tissue.
Stimulated by innervation from hypothalamus

Hyposecretion in childhood

Pituitary dwarfism

Gigantism (childhood),Acromegaly (adulthood

Hypersecretion

Small gland at posterior of diencephalon

Pineal

Produces melatonin Strong antioxidant.
Production varies through day Helps regulate sleep-wake cycle

The Pineal Gland