What are the factors that influence insulin release?

Rising blood levels of amino acids and fatty acids

Elevated blood glucose levels

Release of acetylcholine by parasympathetic nerve fibers

What are the functions of estrogen in females?

Regulate menstrual cycles

Drive the maturity of internal reproductive organs and outer secondary sexual characteristics

What is the mode of action of lipid-soluble hormones?

Enter the cell and act on intracellular receptors

How does the cAMP pathway amplify the effect of a hormone?

One water-soluble hormone can cause the phosphorylation of multiple enzymes

Which condition is characterized by the overproduction of glucocorticoids?

Cushing's syndrome

What are the roles of insulin in the body?

Promote glucose transport into cells, inhibit glycogenolysis, inhibit gluconeogenesis

What are the primary functions of the anterior pituitary hormones?

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) releases thyroid hormones

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) regulates estrogen & follicle maturation

Growth hormone (GH) mobilizes fats & spares glucose

Luteinizing hormone (LH) regulates progesterone & testosterone production

Prolactin (PRL) promotes lactation

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) releases glucocorticoids & androgens

Which hormones are considered water-soluble?

Amino acid-based hormones (excluding thyroid hormones)

How does the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis work?

Hypothalamic hormones stimulate the release of anterior pituitary hormones which in turn stimulate the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones

Which organs produce estrogen?

Ovaries

Which organs are a part of the endocrine system?

Thymus

Parathyroid gland

Adrenal glands

Hypothalamus

Thyroid gland

Pineal gland

Pituitary gland

Pancreas

Gonads (ovary & testis)

Which hormones act on intracellular receptors within the cytosol before entering the nucleus?

Lipid-soluble hormones (and thyroid hormone)

Which hormones increase heart rate and blood pressure?

Hormones released from the adrenal medulla (catecholamines): dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine

Which cells secrete glucagon to increase blood glucose levels?

Alpha cells

What is the role of the Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)?

Regulate blood pressure by increasing sodium and water retention in the kidney

What is the lipid-soluble hormone produced by the thyroid gland?

T3 (triiodothyronine)

What are the two secondary messenger systems?

Cyclic AMP (cAMP)

PIP2-Ca+2

Which hormone regulates salt & water balance?

Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

What produces a swishing sound as blood backflows through partially opened valves?

Heart murmurs

What is the formula for calculating cardiac output?

Heart rate multiplied by stroke volume

What does the T wave represent in an electrocardiogram?

Ventricular repolarization

Which of the following statements is true about cardiac muscle?

It has short cells with 1-2 nuclei

It is striated

It has a pacemaker

It has gap junctions that synchronize contraction of multiple cells

What does the cardiac cycle represent?

The blood flow through the heart during one complete heartbeat

What is cardiac output?

The amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle in 1 minute

What does the P-R interval represent in an electrocardiogram?

The AV node is delaying the impulse of the electrical signal

When does the electrocardiogram end?

When ventricular repolarization is complete

What is the purpose of Ca channels in the plasma membrane of the heart?

To ensure contraction

Why is there an increased number of mitochondria in the heart?

To ensure contraction

To support aerobic metabolism

Why are neuromuscular junctions not frequent in the heart?

The heart muscles are stimulated through several/multiple gap junctions

The electrical impulse travels across all cells

During which part of the ECG does the combination of depolarization and repolarization occur?

The QRS complex

Which of the following statements is true about skeletal muscle?

It is striated

It is multinucleated

It is long

What does the S-T segment indicate in an electrocardiogram?

Ventricular depolarization is complete

What causes the DUB sound of the heart?

Ventricular diastole

What does the QRS complex represent in an electrocardiogram?

The AV node initiates ventricular depolarization

Coupled with repolarization of atria

Which of the following are initial stimuli for determining cardiac output?

Exercise

Ventricular filling time

Blood borne neurotransmitters/hormones/ions

Blood pressure

What is the value of cardiac output (in mL/min) if the heart rate is 95 beats/min and the stroke volume is 50 mL/beat?

4.75 L/min

Which sequence accurately describes the order of systole and diastole in the heart?

Atrial contraction (systole), Atrial relaxation (diastole), Ventricular contraction (systole), Ventricular relaxation (diastole)

What is the purpose of an electrocardiogram?

To detect electrical currents generated by the heart

Which of the following correctly defines stroke volume?

The amount of blood pumped out by 1 ventricle with each beat

What causes the LUB sound of the heart?

Ventricular systole

Which statement accurately describes the relationship between vessel area and blood flow velocity?

As vessel area increases, blood flow velocity decreases.

What are the factors that determine resistance to blood flow?

Blood vessel length

Viscosity

Blood vessel diameter

Which of the following is a risk factor for hypertension?

Obesity

Genetics

What is the role of the autonomic nervous system in blood pressure regulation?

It maintains homeostasis of blood pressure in the short-term.

It alters blood vessel diameter to change resistance to flow.

In exercise hyperemia, what is the response of blood flow to metabolically active muscles?

Blood flow to metabolically active muscles increases.

What are the molecules involved in bulk flow and diffusion in the bloodstream?

Bulk flow involves plasma, while diffusion involves gases and ions.

Which of the following statements about blood pressure is true?

Blood pressure has two readings - systolic pressure and diastolic pressure.

Blood pressure has units of mmHg.

What is the arterial pressure at the mid capillary?

0 mmHg

Which of the following is not a complete exchange of fresh plasma for old plasma in capillaries?

Bulk flow

What is the advantage of living and training in high-altitude locations for more than 6 months?

Increased number of blood vessels due to angiogenesis

What cells release nitric oxide into the bloodstream?

Endothelial cells

What is the role of bulk flow in capillaries?

It exits the capillary at the arterial end and enters the capillary at the venous end.

It is an incomplete exchange of fresh plasma for old plasma.