What are the factors that influence insulin release?
Rising blood levels of amino acids and fatty acids
Elevated blood glucose levels
Release of acetylcholine by parasympathetic nerve fibers
What are the functions of estrogen in females?
Regulate menstrual cycles
Drive the maturity of internal reproductive organs and outer secondary sexual characteristics
What is the mode of action of lipid-soluble hormones?
Enter the cell and act on intracellular receptors
How does the cAMP pathway amplify the effect of a hormone?
One water-soluble hormone can cause the phosphorylation of multiple enzymes
Which condition is characterized by the overproduction of glucocorticoids?
Cushing's syndrome
What are the roles of insulin in the body?
Promote glucose transport into cells, inhibit glycogenolysis, inhibit gluconeogenesis
What are the primary functions of the anterior pituitary hormones?
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) releases thyroid hormones
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) regulates estrogen & follicle maturation
Growth hormone (GH) mobilizes fats & spares glucose
Luteinizing hormone (LH) regulates progesterone & testosterone production
Prolactin (PRL) promotes lactation
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) releases glucocorticoids & androgens
Which hormones are considered water-soluble?
Amino acid-based hormones (excluding thyroid hormones)
How does the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis work?
Hypothalamic hormones stimulate the release of anterior pituitary hormones which in turn stimulate the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones
Which organs produce estrogen?
Ovaries
Which organs are a part of the endocrine system?
Thymus
Parathyroid gland
Adrenal glands
Hypothalamus
Thyroid gland
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Pancreas
Gonads (ovary & testis)
Which hormones act on intracellular receptors within the cytosol before entering the nucleus?
Lipid-soluble hormones (and thyroid hormone)
Which hormones increase heart rate and blood pressure?
Hormones released from the adrenal medulla (catecholamines): dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine
Which cells secrete glucagon to increase blood glucose levels?
Alpha cells
What is the role of the Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)?
Regulate blood pressure by increasing sodium and water retention in the kidney
What is the lipid-soluble hormone produced by the thyroid gland?
T3 (triiodothyronine)
What are the two secondary messenger systems?
Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
PIP2-Ca+2
Which hormone regulates salt & water balance?
Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
What produces a swishing sound as blood backflows through partially opened valves?
Heart murmurs
What is the formula for calculating cardiac output?
Heart rate multiplied by stroke volume
What does the T wave represent in an electrocardiogram?
Ventricular repolarization
Which of the following statements is true about cardiac muscle?
It has short cells with 1-2 nuclei
It is striated
It has a pacemaker
It has gap junctions that synchronize contraction of multiple cells
What does the cardiac cycle represent?
The blood flow through the heart during one complete heartbeat
What is cardiac output?
The amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle in 1 minute
What does the P-R interval represent in an electrocardiogram?
The AV node is delaying the impulse of the electrical signal
When does the electrocardiogram end?
When ventricular repolarization is complete
What is the purpose of Ca channels in the plasma membrane of the heart?
To ensure contraction
Why is there an increased number of mitochondria in the heart?
To ensure contraction
To support aerobic metabolism
Why are neuromuscular junctions not frequent in the heart?
The heart muscles are stimulated through several/multiple gap junctions
The electrical impulse travels across all cells
During which part of the ECG does the combination of depolarization and repolarization occur?
The QRS complex
Which of the following statements is true about skeletal muscle?
It is striated
It is multinucleated
It is long
What does the S-T segment indicate in an electrocardiogram?
Ventricular depolarization is complete
What causes the DUB sound of the heart?
Ventricular diastole
What does the QRS complex represent in an electrocardiogram?
The AV node initiates ventricular depolarization
Coupled with repolarization of atria
Which of the following are initial stimuli for determining cardiac output?
Exercise
Ventricular filling time
Blood borne neurotransmitters/hormones/ions
Blood pressure
What is the value of cardiac output (in mL/min) if the heart rate is 95 beats/min and the stroke volume is 50 mL/beat?
4.75 L/min
Which sequence accurately describes the order of systole and diastole in the heart?
Atrial contraction (systole), Atrial relaxation (diastole), Ventricular contraction (systole), Ventricular relaxation (diastole)
What is the purpose of an electrocardiogram?
To detect electrical currents generated by the heart
Which of the following correctly defines stroke volume?
The amount of blood pumped out by 1 ventricle with each beat
What causes the LUB sound of the heart?
Ventricular systole
Which statement accurately describes the relationship between vessel area and blood flow velocity?
As vessel area increases, blood flow velocity decreases.
What are the factors that determine resistance to blood flow?
Blood vessel length
Viscosity
Blood vessel diameter
Which of the following is a risk factor for hypertension?
Obesity
Genetics
What is the role of the autonomic nervous system in blood pressure regulation?
It maintains homeostasis of blood pressure in the short-term.
It alters blood vessel diameter to change resistance to flow.
In exercise hyperemia, what is the response of blood flow to metabolically active muscles?
Blood flow to metabolically active muscles increases.
What are the molecules involved in bulk flow and diffusion in the bloodstream?
Bulk flow involves plasma, while diffusion involves gases and ions.
Which of the following statements about blood pressure is true?
Blood pressure has two readings - systolic pressure and diastolic pressure.
Blood pressure has units of mmHg.
What is the arterial pressure at the mid capillary?
0 mmHg
Which of the following is not a complete exchange of fresh plasma for old plasma in capillaries?
Bulk flow
What is the advantage of living and training in high-altitude locations for more than 6 months?
Increased number of blood vessels due to angiogenesis
What cells release nitric oxide into the bloodstream?
Endothelial cells
What is the role of bulk flow in capillaries?
It exits the capillary at the arterial end and enters the capillary at the venous end.
It is an incomplete exchange of fresh plasma for old plasma.