Perspectives in psychology

Are the different ways of understanding and explaining human behavior and mental processes. These include:

• Psychodynamic
• Behaviorism
• Humanistic
• Cognitive
• Biological
• Evolutionary
• Sociocultural
• Biopsychological

Psychodynamic

Explores how unconscious drives, conflicts, and childhood experiences affect a person's behavior.

• How what is beneath the surface affects what is going on on the outside.
  • It was produced by Freud (ego, superego, etc.)

Behaviorsim

It focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through interacting with the environment.

• You observe and try to treat visible behavior
  • Produced by John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner.

Humanistic

It focuses on personal growth/evolution/self-actualization.

• Parallel to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Cognitive

Examines all internal mental processes such as thinking, memory and problem-solving.

• Parallel to the cognitive triangle: Emotions->Thoughts-> Behavior->Emotions

Biological

Studies the psychological bases of behavior in humans and animals.

• Everything that is psychological is biological.
  • Example: Rash, hair falling out, diarreah=anxiety

Evolutionary

Considers how behavior and mental processes serve as adaptations for survival and reproduction.

Sociocultural

Analyzes how culture and society has an effect on behavior.

• Example: TikTok trends,

Biopsychological

Combines biological, psychological and social factors when analyzing behavior.

Psychology

The scientific study of mental processes and behavior.

• Mental processes- everything happening in your mind.
• Behavior- what can be seen done by another person.

Confirmation bias

When people only accept information that confirms their beliefs. Other information that does not align with those ideals is disregarded.

Hindsight bias

When people think they know the outcome of an event is more predictable that it actually is.

• I-knew-it-all-along phenomena

Overconfidence

When people think they know more or can do more than they actually do.

Empirical evidence

Evidence obtained by observations, experimentation and/or measurement.

• Prevents biased judgements or decisions to be made.

The Scientific Method

Systematic/scientific approach to studying human behavior and mental processes.

• Hypothesis
• Theories
• Experimentation
• Analysis
• Conclusions

Hypothesis

A prediction of what will occur and result in an experiment.

• It is based on existing facts that lead you to make educated guesses.

Falsifiable

A statement that can be equally proven as it can be disproven through experimentation.

Peer Review

Experts evaluate and give feedback to scientists on their research articles and discoveries to see if it can be published or not.

Replication

Process of repeating an experiment or process to see if the results are the same to the original study.

Reliability

Consistent results of a test, measure or experiment.

• Repeated
• Reliable
• Results

Validity

Refers to if a study or experiment measures what it intends to measure; if it effectively assesses what it is meant to assess.

The American Psychological Association

The leading organization of psychologists.

• Goals: Advance the field of psychology and promote the application of such to improve quality of life.

Research Design-Overall Structure

The plan that will be directing how a research study will be executed.

• They are experimental, correlational and descriptive.

Methodology-Specific Techniques

Systematic methods used to conduct research.

Quantitative Data

Number-based data that is gathered from surveys, experiments or tests.

• Goal: Understand patterns and relationships precisely.

Qualitative Data

Gives a deeper insight into complex topics by observation or interviews.

• Goal: Focus on behaviors and experiences.

Likert Scale

Measurement tool that assesses people's attitudes, opinions or perceptions.

• Example: On a scale from 1-10....

Structured Interviews

Method of investigation in which every participant is asked the same questions the same way.

• Standardized approach brings consistency.

Survey Technique

Research method in which individuals self-report answers to open-ended questions about attitudes, beliefs, opinions or behaviors.

Wording Effect

Changes in wording can cause different interpretations and responses.

• Can cause biased or inaccurate data.

Social Desirability Bias

Tendency to answer according to what is thought should be answered due to social norms or what is favorable for others instead of giving a truthful answer.

Naturalistic Observation

Research method in which behavior in real-world settings without intervention and manipulation is observed and recorded.

• Data collection:
  • Tally
  • Take notes of observations
  • Audio or video recording

Case study

A research method in which the behavior of a specific single individual, group or phenomenon is observed.

Correlational Research

Research method that focuses on the relationships between 2 or more variables.

• CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION.
• CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN MANIPULATION.
  • It measures naturally occurring associations.

Third Variable Problem/Confounding Variable

Third variable that influences or affects the relationship between variables (a third factor).

Scatterplot

Visual representation of the relationship between two variables.

• Identifies strengths and direction + outliers or unusual patterns,

Correlation Coefficient

Quantifies the strength and direction of the relationship of two variables.

• Symbol: r
• Range: -1->+1
  • The number is what represents the strength
    • Stronger=predictable
    • Weaker= less predictable (outlier)

No Correlation

No relationship between the variables of an experiment.

• Example: The number of friends a teenager has on social media and their favorite color.

Positive Correlation

A correlation coefficient of +1 is a perfect relationship. Variables increase and decrease at the same time at the same rate.

• 0.1-0.5: Weak positive correlation
• 0.6-0.99: Strong positive correlation.
• 1: perfect positive correlation.

Negative Correlation

A correlation coefficient of -1 is a perfect relationship. Variables are inversely proportional.

• -0.1- -0.5: weak negative correlation.
• -0.6- -0.99: strong negative correlation.
• -1: perfect negative correlation.

Experimental method

Research technique used to study cause and effect between the two variable's relationship.

• Manipulated independent variables
• Measures dependent variables

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated/ that the researcher controls in the experiment.

• Function: See if a change in this variable causes a change in the result/dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is affected by the independent variable; it is the variable observed and measured.

Confounding variable

A variable that is initially not considered in a study but affects the result.

Operational Definition

Specifies measurable terms in a study.

• Ensures consistency
• Defines and quantifies abstract concepts or constructs

Experimental Group

The group receiving or being exposed to the independent variable.

• The subject/participant of the experiment.

Control Group

The group that is not receiving or being exposed to the independent variable used to compare and contrast results.

• The Placebo Group

Random Assignment

Research method in which people will randomly be assigned to a group for the experiment.

• Gives an equal chance to be assigned to any condition, scenario, etc.
• No room for bias.

Placebo Effect

Phenomena in which a person believes their condition is improving due to a beneficial treatment rather than an actual ingredient or psychological mechanism.

Experimental Bias

When the researcher's beliefs or ideals have an effect on the experiment's results.

• Affects:
  • How the experiment is conducted
  • How data is interpreted
  • Gives inaccurate conclusions

Single-Blind Study

Research method in which participants are unaware of their groups but researchers are aware.

Double-Blind Study

Neither the researchers interacting with the participants or the participants knows to which group each participant belongs.

Placebo Condition

Receiving the placebo makes the participant go under the placebo condition.

Sample

Participants that are taken out of a larger group.

Representative Sample

PArticipants selected to represent a larger population that reflects demographics, characteristics and diversity.

Random Sample

Participants selected have the same opportunity to participate to prevent researcher bias; they are randomly chosen.

• Example: picking a name from a hat; mystery wheel.

Sample Bias

Sample is not representative so the results will be inaccurate or misleading.

Generalizability

When the results of an experiment can be applied to the general public; it can be generalized.

Statistics

Data collection in research studies; it turns data into information.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical measures that summarize and describe the characteristics of a data set.

• Focus: Describes what the data looks like without generalizing.

Inferential Statistics

Uses data from a sample to make inferences or predictions about a larger population.

• Educated guess with data.

Measures of Central Tendency

Statistical tools used to describe the central or average data of a data set.

• Mean
• Median
• Mode

Mean

Represents the average value of a set of data.

• Can be influenced or affected by outliers.

Median

Middle value of a data set in ascending order.

• Not sensible to outliers.

Mode

Value that is repeated with more frequency in a set of values.