Psychodynamic Perspective:

Focuses on unconscious drives and childhood experiences, often emphasizing conflicts between biological drives and societal expectations.

• Behavioral Perspective

Examines observable behaviors and how they are learned through interactions with the environment, emphasizing conditioning.

• Humanistic Perspective:

• Stresses individual potential for growth, free will, and self-actualization, focusing on the inherent goodness of people.

• Cognitive Perspective:

Studies mental processes such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making, emphasizing how information is processed and stored.

• Biological Perspective:

Focuses on the influence of biology on behavior, examining brain structures, neurochemistry, genetics, and hormones.

• Evolutionary Perspective:

Explores how evolutionary principles like natural selection influence behaviors, explaining them in terms of survival and reproduction.

• Sociocultural Perspective:

Examines how society and culture influence behavior and thinking, considering norms, values, and social interactions.

• Biopsychosocial Perspective:

Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to understand behavior and mental processes.

• Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs.

• Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that it was predictable.

• Overconfidence:

The tendency to overestimate one’s abilities, knowledge, or accuracy of predictions.

• Likert Scales

: A psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires to measure attitudes or opinions.

• Structured Interviews

: Interviews in which a set of predefined questions are asked in a specific order.

• Survey Technique

• A research method that collects data from respondents through questions to gather opinions, behaviors, or characteristics.

• Wording Effect

The influence that specific wording of survey questions can have on respondents’ answers.

• Social Desirability Bias:

The tendency for participants to give responses that are more socially acceptable rather than truthful.

• Correlational Research

A study that examines the relationship between two variables but does not imply causation.

• Third Variable Problem

: A situation in which an unaccounted-for variable influences the relationship between two studied variables.

• Scatterplot

: A graph that displays the relationship between two variables using dots to represent individual data points.

• Correlation Coefficient:

A statistical measure that indicates the extent of the relationship between two variables.

• Positive Correlation

: A relationship in which both variables move in the same direction.

• Negative Correlation:

A relationship in which one variable increases as the other decreases.

• Experimental Method:

• A research method where one or more variables are manipulated to observe their effect on a dependent variable.

• Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

• Random Sample

: A sample in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

• Sample Bias:

Bias introduced when a sample does not represent the population fairly.

• Generalizability:

The extent to which research findings can be applied to the broader population.

Statistics:

The field that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of numerical data.

Descriptive Statistics:

Statistics that summarize and describe the features of a data set.

• Inferential Statistics:

• Statistics used to make generalizations from a sample to a population.

• Measure of Central Tendency:

• A statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of a set of data (mean, median, mode).

Normal Curve:

A bell-shaped curve representing the distribution of data where most values cluster around the mean.

Regression to the Mean:

The tendency for extreme values to fall closer to the mean over time.

Falsifiable

: The ability of a hypothesis to be disproven by empirical evidence.

Peer Review:

The process of having research evaluated by other experts in the field before publication.

Replication

: Repeating a study to verify its results.

Reliability:

The consistency of research results over time.

Validity:

The degree to which a study measures what it claims to measure.

Informed Consent

: The process by which participants are informed of the study’s purpose, risks, and benefits before agreeing to participate.

Informed Assent

: Agreement to participate in research from individuals who cannot give legal consent, such as children, with permission from a guardian.

Confidentiality:

The principle of keeping participants’ information private.

Deception:

Misleading participants about the true purpose of the study, used only when necessary and ethically justified.

Confederates:

People who pretend to be participants but are working with the researcher.

Debriefing

: Informing participants of the true purpose and details of a study after it concludes.

Research Design:

The overall strategy and structure of a research study.

Methodology:

The specific procedures and techniques used to collect and analyze data.

Confounding Variable

: An outside influence that affects the dependent variable and potentially skews results.

Operational Definitions:

Specific definitions of variables in terms of how they are measured or manipulated.

Experimental Group

: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation.

Random Assignment:

Assigning participants to experimental or control groups randomly to reduce bias.

Placebo Effect:

When participants experience effects from a treatment because they believe it will work, even if it's inactive.

Experimenter Bias:

When researchers’ expectations unintentionally influence participants or the results.

Single-Blind Study:

A study in which participants do not know whether they are receiving the treatment or placebo.

Double-Blind Study:

A study in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment or placebo.

Placebo Condition:

A control condition where participants receive an inert substance to measure psychological effects.

1. Defensible Claim:

A statement that is supported by strong evidence and sound reasoning.