independent variable

a variable (often denoted by x) whose variation does not depend on that of another; aka the experimental condition

dependent variable

a variable (often denoted by y) whose value depends on that of another. Also called response variable; aka what is being measured

pH scale

measures how acidic or basic a solution is; ranges from 0 to 14

acidic (pH scale)

any pH value below 7; a substance that releases or causes the release of hydrogen ions (H+) into a solution

base (pH scale)

any pH value above 7; a substances that removes H+ from a solution

Red Cabbage Indicator

made of anthocyanins; is a pH indicator

- the color of the cabbage extract depends on the Ph of the solution

Quiz: Interpreting results for Red Cabbage Indicator

match pH w/ color

acidic to basic

pH 2 = red

pH 4 = pink

pH 6 = purple

pH 7 = violet

pH 8 = blue

pH 10 = grey/green

pH 12 = green

Anthocyanins

are pigments responsible for red, blue, and purple colors in flowers, fruits, and autumn leaves. These pigments will change when the pH changes

Phenol Red indicator

demonstrates the acidity of hydrochloric acid and the alkalinity of sodium hydroxide; is an indicator dye

Quiz: interpreting results for Phenol Red

1. Red =

2. pink =

3. Yellow =

1. Red = neutral;

2. pink = basic;

3. yellow = acidic

buffer

is a solution whose pH resists change on addition of small amounts of either an acid or a base; can either by a weak acid w/ a conjugate base or a weak base w/ a conjugate acid

buffering capacity

is the amount of a strong acid or base that has to be added to 1 liter of buffer to a cause a PH change of 1.0 pH unit

positive control

contains the variable for which you are testing; it will react positively and demonstrate the test's ability to detect what you expect

negative control

does not contain the variable for which you are testing; generally contains just the solvent and does not react in the test

Ex: distilled water w/o solute

Benedict's test

identifies reducing sugar based on their ability to reduce the cupric (Cu2+) ions to cuprous oxide at basic (high) pH

- cupric oxide is green to reddish orange

Quiz: interpreting results for Benedict's test

1. green solution

2. reddish organe

3. no color-change

1. a green solution indicates a small amount of reducing sugar

2. reddish orange indicates an abidance of reducing sugars

3. non-reducing sugars produce n change in color

Iodine test

distinguishes starch from monosaccharides, disaccharides, and other polysaccharides

Quiz: interpreting results for Iodine test

1. bluish black

2. yellowish brown

3. presence of glycogen

1. positive test! iodine reacts w/ the starch (child polymer of glucose) and becomes bluish black

2. negative test! iodine does not react w/ carbohydrates that are not coiled and remains yellowish brown

3. glycogen has a slightly different structure than does starch and produces only an intermediate color change

Biuret Test

a peptide bond forms between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of an adjacent amino acid; the reagent is a 1% solution of copper sulfate

- the peptide bond can be identified by this test

Quiz: interpreting results for Biuret test

1. presence of peptide bonds

2. no peptide bonds

1. positive result! Peptide bonds (C-N bonds) in protein complex w/ Cu2+ in biuret reagent and produce a violet color

(the intensity of the violet color correlates w/ the amount of peptide bonds present in the test solution)

2. a negative test for proteins is indicated by no color change

Test for Lipids

based on a lipid's solubility characteristics in polar solvents, and their ability to produce translucent grease-marks on unglazed paper

Quiz: interpreting results for Lipid Test

1. liquid at room temperature

2. solid at room temperature

1. unsaturated fatty acids aka oils; contains double bonds

2. saturated fatty acids; the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized

Amoeba

are eukaryotes and single-celled animals that catch food and move about by extending fingerlike projections of protoplasm; can either be free-living in damp environments or parasitic

Blepharisma

are unicellular ports that are ciliated and found in fresh and salt water

Trichonympha

are single-celled protists that are flagellated and commonly found in the gut of termites

selectively permeable

a cell membrane that allows only certain items such as water to pass freely through; regulates the movement of other solutes

diffusion

can be fedinef as the movement of molecules across a semipermeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached

osmosis

is the movement of a solvent across a selectively permeable membrane from a low solute contraction to a region of high solute concentration

hypotonic

more solutes inside, so water comes in

- preferred condition of plants (normal)

- animal cells would burst (lysed)

isotonic

both sides of the membrane have the same amount of solutes, so no change; solutions are in equilibrium

- good for animal cells

- plants cells are flacid

hypertonic

more solutes outside, so water goes out

- animals cells are shriveled

- plants cells are plasmolyzed

cofactors

nonprotein substances, bind to the active site on the enzyme and are essential for the enzyme to work

cellobiase

an enzyme that breaks down cellulose to glucose by biding the substrate cellobiose to cellobiase to produce glucose molecules

photosynthesis

process only used by plants, algae, and cyanobacteria; captures energy from sunlight and converts it into chemical compounds that every organisms uses to power its metabolism (also a source of oxygen necessary for many living organisms)

photoautotrophs

organisms that use light to make their own food; include plants, algae, and cyanobacteria

heterotrophs

rely on the sugars produced by photosynthetic organisms for their energy needs include animals, fungi, and most bacteria

equation for photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H20 + energy --- C6H12O6 + 602

spectrophotmeter

can differentiate which wavelengths of light a substance can absorb; measure transmitted light and compute from it the absorption

chromatography

used to separate pigments based on their polarity

- carotenoid is the least polar (was not on the paper at all)

- chlorophyll b was the most polar (was the most prevalent on the paper)

chlorophyll

reflect green light waves; found inside the chloroplast; contributes to photosynthesis; may break down in the fall

(absorbs red and blue)

anthocyaanin

reflect red or purple light waves; is produced when chlorophyll starts to break down in the fall

carotenoid

reflect orange light waves; present in plant cells, but usually overpowered by green chlorophyll; become visible/turn leaves orange when chlorophlll breaks down in the fall

(absorbed blue and green)

xanthophtyll

reflect yellow light waves; present in plant cells, but usually overpowered by green chlorophyl; become visible/turn leaves yellow when chlorophlll breaks down in the fall

Mitosis

somatic cells only; produces 2 identical daughter cells; NO crossing over; only 1 cycle

meiosis

gametes only; produces 4 different daughter cells; crossing over for variation; 2 cycles

incomplete dominance

the condition in heterozygote individuals where their phenotype is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes

law of independent assortment

genes do not influence each other w/ regards to sorting out alleles into gametes; every possible combination of alleles is equally likely to occur

law of segregation

paired unit factors (genes) segregate equally into gametes such that offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting any combination of factors

phenotype

the physical expression of the genes possessed by an organism

genotype

a listing of the genes of an organism, whether or not the genes are expressed