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Blood and Circulatory System Disorders

front 1 Blood	back 1 Transports essential oxygen to tissues along with nutrients required for cellular metabolism provides for the necessary removal of many cell wastes plays a critical role in the body's defenses/immune system serves in maintaining body homeostasis Provides a mechanism for controlling body temperature by distributing Core heat throughout the peripheral tissues
front 2 Two Separate Circulations	back 2 The pulmonary circulation The systemic circulation
front 3 The Pulmonary Circulation	back 3 allows The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs
front 4 The Systemic Circulation	back 4 Provides for the exchange of nutrients and wastes between the blood and the cells throughout the body

front 5 Arteries	back 5 Transports Blood away from the heart
front 6 Arterioles	back 6 The smaller branches of arteries Controls the amount of blood flowing into the capillaries in specific areas through the degree of contraction of smooth muscle in the vessel wall
front 7 Capillaries	back 7 Very small vessels Forms the microcirculation Blood flow very slowly through capillaries *precapillary sphincters* Single endothelial layer Facilitates the exchange of fluid, oxygen, carbon dioxide, electrolytes glucose, and other nutrients and waste between the blood and interstitial fluid
front 8 Precapillary Sphincters	back 8 Determines the amount of blood flowing from the arterioles into the individual capillaries depends on the metabolic needs of the tissues

front 9 Small Venules	back 9 conduct blood from the capillary beds toward the heart
front 10 Veins	back 10 returns blood back to the heart Have thinner walls than arteries and less smooth muscles
front 11 Capacitance Vessels	back 11 the blood vessels that hold the major portion of theintravascular blood volume veins
front 12 Walls of arteries and veins	back 12 Tunica Intima the inner layer endothelium (simple squamous) flat so fluid can be exchanged back-and-forth Tunica Media The middle layer Layer of smooth muscle Controls the diameter and lumen size Tunica Adventitia outer connective tissue layer Contains elastic and collagen fibers

front 13 autoregulation	back 13 A reflex adjustment in a small area of a tissue varies depending on the needs of the cells in the area
front 14 Causes of local vasodilation	back 14 decrease in pH increase in carbon dioxide decrease in oxygen
front 15 composition of blood	back 15 Water and its dissolve solutes (plasma) = 55% of the whole blood volume remaining 45% is composed of the cells or formed elements erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes
front 16 Hematocrit	back 16 Refers to The proportion of cells in blood Indicates the viscosity of the blood

front 17 plasma	back 17 The clear yellowish fluid remaining after the cells have been removed contains: water 92% plasma proteins 7% other solutes 1% Amino acids Carbohydrates Lipids Vitamins Hormones Enzymes Electrolytes Wastes
front 18 serum	back 18 Refers to the fluid and solutes remaining after the cells and fibrinogen has been removed
front 19 Examples of plasma proteins	back 19 Albumin Globulins/Anti-bodies fibrinogen
front 20 albumin	back 20 Maintains osmotic pressure in the blood

front 21 Fibrinogen	back 21 essential for the formation of blood clots
front 22 Red bone marrow	back 22 Origination of all blood cells found in the flat and irregular bones, ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and pelvis
front 23 Erythrocytes or red blood cells	back 23 Biconcave flexible discs non-nucleated when mature state Contain hemoglobin Size and structure are essential for easy passage to small capillaries life span = 120 days b/c no nucleus
front 24 Erythropoietin	back 24 Originates in the kidney Hormone that stimulates erythrocyte production in the red bone marrow

front 25 Hemoglobin	back 25 Consists of: the globlin portion two pairs of amino acid chains four heme groups each containing a ferrous iron atom, to which oxygen molecule can attach
front 26 Oxyhemoglobin	back 26 A bright red color that distinguishes arterial blood from venous blood
front 27 deoxyhemoglobin	back 27 Dark bluish red in color and font and venous blood
front 28 Leukopoiesis	back 28 Production of white blood cells Stimulated by colony stimulating factors that are produced by cells such as macrophages and T lymphocytes

front 29 leukocytes	back 29 Makes up only about 1% of blood volume Subdivided into two categories: Granulocytes Agranulocytes All types develop in differentiate from the original stem cell in bone marrow There are five types of leukocytes Lymphocytes Neutrophils Basophils Eosinophils Monocytes
front 30 Lymphocytes	back 30 Makes up 30 to 40% of the white blood cells
front 31 neutrophils	back 31 The most common leukocyte Makes up 50 to 60% of White blood cells Survive only four days The first to respond to any tissue damage And phagocytosis Increase in numbers by bacterial affection
front 32 Basophils	back 32 Can release histamine and heparin Maybe fixed in tissues or wandering

front 33 Eosinophils	back 33 Combat the effects of histamine Increase by allergic rea ctions and parasitic infections
front 34 monocytes	back 34 can enter the tissue to become macrophages
front 35 differential count	back 35 Indicates the proportion the specific types of white blood cells in the blood Assist in making a diagnosis
front 36 Thrombocytes	back 36 Essential part of the blood clotting process Not cells Non-nucleated

front 37 Hemostasis (3 steps)	back 37 An immediate response of a blood vessel to injury is vasoconstriction of vascular spasm Form a platelet plug in the vessel Coagulation mechanism
front 38 Heparin	back 38 an anticoagulant Released from basophils or mast cells in the tissues Blocks thrombin Does not dissolve clots but prevents further growth of the thrombus
front 39 Blood type	back 39 Determined by the presence of specific antigens on the cell membranes of erythrocytes
front 40 ABO groups	back 40 An inherited characteristic Depends on the presence of type A or B antigens

front 41 type O blood	back 41 Lack A and B antigens are considered universal donors
front 42 type A and B blood	back 42 Are universal recipients
front 43 RH system	back 43 May cause blood and incompatibility if the mother is Rh negative and the fetus is Rh positive Antigen D in plasma membrane = RH positive Absence of antigen D = RH negative
front 44 Complete blood count (CBC) diagnostic test for blood	back 44 Includes total red blood cells, white blood cells, platelet count, and morphology (size and shape), a differential count for white blood cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit values

front 45 Leukocytosis	back 45 An increase in white blood cells Often associated with inflammation or infection
front 46 leukopenia	back 46 Decrease in leukocytes Occurs with some viral infections as well as with radiation and chemo therapy
front 47 increase in eosinophils	back 47 Common with allergic responses and parasitic infections
front 48 morphology	back 48 Observe with blood sMears Shows size, shape, uniformity, and maturity of cells Helps to distinguish different types of anemia

front 49 Hemoglobin (diagnostic test)	back 49 Amount of hemoglobin per unit volume of blood Mean corpuscular volume Indicates the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood Mean corpuscular hemoglobin
front 50 Reticulocyte Count	back 50 Assessment of bone marrow function
front 51 Chemical analysis of the blood	back 51 Determine serum levels of components such as iron, vitamin B12, folic acid, cholesterol, urea, and glucose
front 52 Bleeding time (diagnostic test)	back 52 Measures platelet function

front 53 prothrombin time (PT) and partial thromboplastin time (PTT)	back 53 Measures function of various factors in coagulation process interNational normalized ratio is a standardized version
front 54 partial thromboplastin time	back 54 Measures the intrinsic pathway PTT... the 2 t's are in(trinsic) a relationship
front 55 prothrombin time	back 55 measures the extrinsic pathway
front 56 anemia	back 56 A reduction in oxygen transport in the blood due to a decrease in hemoglobin content May result from the declining production of the protein, a decrease in the number of erythrocytes, or a combination of these factors May be classified by typical cell morphology oxygen deficiency leads to: Less energy production and all cells Cell metabolism and reproduction diminished Compensation mechanism to improve the oxygen supply ex: Tachycardia peripheral vasoconstriction General signs of anemia Fatigue, Pallor, dyspnea, and tachycardia Decrease regeneration of epithelial cells

front 57 Iron deficiency anemia	back 57 Insufficient iron impairs hemoglobin synthesis Which reduces the amount of oxygen transported in the blood Red blood cells are microcytic and hypochromic Very common Ranges from mild to severe Occurs in all age groups One in five women is affected Proportion increases for pregnant women Frequently a sign of an underlying problem
front 58 Etiology of iron deficiency anemia	back 58 Dietary intake of iron may be below the minimum requirement Chronic blood loss duodenal absorption of iron may be impaired Severe liver disease may affect both iron absorption and iron storage
front 59 Manifestations of iron deficiency anemia	back 59 pallor of the skin and mucous membranes Due to vasoconstriction Fatigue,lethargy, and cold intolerance b/c cell metabolism decreased Irritability A central nervous system response to hypoxia Degenerative changes such as brittle hair, spoon shaped and rigid nails Inflammation of oral mucosa and tongue Menstrual irregularities Delayed healing Tachycardia, heart palpitations, dyspnea, syncope * People who have iron deficiency anemia may have unusual craving for nonfood items such as ice, paint, or starch. This craving is called pica
front 60 Diagnostic tests for Iron deficiency anemia	back 60 Laboratory test demonstrate low values of hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin, serum ferritin and serum iron, and transferrin saturation

front 61 Treatment for iron deficiency anemia	back 61 Identified underlying cause and resolves if possible Consume Iron rich foods or iron supplements
front 62 pernicious anemia: vitamin B₁₂ deficiency (megaloblastic anemia)	back 62 The common form of megaloblastic anemia Caused by the malabsorption of the vitamin B₁₂ Iron deficiency may be present as well Red blood cells are very large and contain nuclei Dietary and sufficiency is a very rare cause May be an outcome of surgeries in which the parietal cells are removed or resection of the ileum which is a sight of absorption
front 63 Vitamin B₁₂ and nerve cells	back 63 Vitamin B₁₂ is needed for the function and maintenance of neurons Deficiency can result in neuropsychiatric symptoms
front 64 Manifestations of pernicious anemia	back 64 Tongue is typically in large, red, sore, and shiny Decrease in gastric acid leads to digestive discomfort such as nausea and diarrhea Tingling or burning sensations in the extremities or loss of coordination and ataxia

front 65 Diagnostic tests for pernicious anemia	back 65 Microscopic examination (erythrocytes) Bone marrow examination (hyperactive) Vitamin B₁₂ serum levels below normal
front 66 Treatment for Pernicious Anemia	back 66 Oral supplements are recommended Vitamin B₁₂ is administered by injection
front 67 Aplastic anemia	back 67 Results from impairment or failure of bone marrow leading to loss of stem cells and pancytopenia may be temporary or permanent often idiopathic
front 68 Pancytopenia	back 68 decreased numbers of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes in the blood.

front 69 Hemolytic Anemia	back 69 results from excessive destruction of RBCs leads to a low erythrocyte count and low hemoglobin causes: genetic defects immune reactions Changes in blood chemistry Presence of toxins in the blood Infections such as malaria Antigen-antibody reaction Incompatible blood transfusion
front 70 What term is used to describe a deficit of all types of blood cells? Leucopenia Neutropenia Pancytopenia Erythrocytosis	back 70 PANCYTOPENIA
front 71 Capillary walls consist of: multiple endothelial layers. a thick layer of smooth muscle. two or three epithelial layers. a single endothelial layer	back 71 a single endothelial layer
front 72 Individuals with type O blood are considered to be universal donors because their blood: contains A and B antibodies. contains A and B antigens. lacks A and B antibodies. lacks A and B antigens.	back 72 lacks A and B antigens.

front 73 What causes numbness and tingling in the fingers of individuals with untreated pernicious anemia? Persistent hyperbilirubinemia Increasing acidosis affecting metabolism Vitamin B₁₂ deficit causing peripheral nerve demyelination Multiple small vascular occlusions affecting peripheral nerves	back 73 Vitamin B₁₂ deficit causing peripheral nerve demyelination
front 74 What is the cause of oral ulcerations and delayed healing occurring with any severe anemia? Lack of folic acid for DNA synthesis Frequent microinfarcts in the tissues Deficit of oxygen for epithelial cell mitosis and metabolism Elevated bilirubin levels in blood and body fluids	back 74 Deficit of oxygen for epithelial cell mitosis and metabolism
front 75 Why is pernicious anemia treated with injections of vitamin B₁₂? An immune reaction in the stomach would destroy the vitamin. Digestive enzymes would destroy the vitamin. The vitamin irritates the gastric mucosa. The ingested vitamin would not be absorbed into the blood.	back 75 The ingested vitamin would not be absorbed into the blood.
front 76 Why do vascular occlusions and infarcts occur frequently with sickle cell anemia? The red blood cells are abnormally large. Increased hemolysis of erythrocytes occurs. Erythrocytes change to sickle shape when hypoxia occurs HbS is unable to transport oxygen	back 76 Erythrocytes change to sickle shape when hypoxia occurs

front 77 In cases of polycythemia vera, blood pressure is elevated as a result of: increased blood volume. frequent infarcts in the coronary circulation. congested spleen and bone marrow. increased renin and aldosterone secretions.	back 77 increased blood volume.
front 78 In individuals with pernicious anemia, antibodies form to: vitamin B₁₂ . intrinsic factor or parietal cells. mucus-producing glands. hydrochloric acid.	back 78 intrinsic factor or parietal cells.
front 79 Petechiae and purpura are common signs of: excessive hemolysis. leucopenia. increased bleeding. hemoglobin deficit.	back 79 increased bleeding.
front 80 Which of the following substances acts as an anticoagulant? Prothrombin Heparin Fibrinogen Vitamin K	back 80 Heparin

front 81 Why is excessive bleeding a common occurrence with acute leukemia? Deficit of calcium ions Impaired production of prothrombin and fibrinogen Decreased platelets Dysfunctional thrombocytes	back 81 Decreased platelets
front 82 Multiple myeloma is a malignant tumor involving: plasma cells. granulocytes bone cells. lymph nodes.	back 82 plasma cells.
front 83 The Reed-Sternberg cell is diagnostic for: chronic myeloblastic leukemia. Hodgkin’s lymphoma. multiple myeloma. non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.	back 83 Hodgkin’s lymphoma.
front 84 Which of the following applies to the leukemias? Chronic leukemias are more common in older people. AML is the most common childhood leukemia. Exposure to chemicals is not considered a predisposing factor. Lymphoid tissue produces abnormal leukocytes.	back 84 Chronic leukemias are more common in older people.

front 85 A high percentage of blast cells in the leukocyte population indicates a poor prognosis for an individual with: thalassemia acute myelogenous leukemia (AML). myelodysplastic syndrome. multiple myeloma.	back 85 acute myelogenous leukemia (AML).
front 86 Which of the following applies to erythropoietin? It is produced by the liver. It increases iron absorption for heme production. It stimulates production of red blood cells. Hypoxia stimulates the red bone marrow to produce erythropoietin.	back 86 It stimulates production of red blood cells.
front 87 Microcytic and hypochromic erythrocytes are commonly found as a result of: iron deficiency anemia. polycythemia disseminated intravascular coagulation. hemophilia A	back 87 iron deficiency anemia.