What was the first filial generation?

Offspring of the P generation, consisting of 100% heterozygous individuals, thus containing both alleles from parents and 100% exhibiting the dominant traits

What was the second filial generation?

Offspring of F1 generation, will have an even amount of homozygous and heterozygous individuals but 75% will exhibit the dominant trait

What are punnett squares?

A tool that allows us to predict the outcomes of certain crosses. Alleles from both parents being crossed are represented and combined to create a new set of alleles.

What are dihybrid crosses?

allow us to predict the chances of two alleles being inherited simultaneously.

What is probability?

The likelihood of something happening or being the case

What is binomial expansion?

Allows us calculate probability without having to think of every
sequence in which events occur. The formula is (a+b)^n

What is the chi-squared test?

Allows us to calculate deviations from observed and
expected numbers to determine if this is due to chance or if it is statistically significant. (helps use find the probability value)

greater than (.05) 5% is insignificant

less than (.05) 5% is significant

What is degree's of freedom?

the number of categories being measured (in this case phenotypes) minus one

What are genetically modified organisms(GMOs)? List examples

Any animal, plant, or microbe that has had their DNA altered using genetic engineering. We are around GMOs everyday, some can be helpful, some can be harmful.

Wild carrots, chickens, hybrid dogs (doodles), E. coli k-12

Single gene testing?

Looking at singular genes

What are genetic testing panels?

Looking at multiple genes

What is genetic testing?

Any test that is capable of identifying changes to DNA

What is a pedigree?

Shows relationships between individuals as well as affected
family members.

What is a proband?

The individual who serves as the starting point for genetic study for a family.

What is a consultand?

The patient seeking information

What is a carcinogen?

Any chemical capable of inducing cancer

What is cancer?

A disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body. (Can happen in any type of cells)

What are benign tumors?

non-cancerous cells that don't harm us

What are malignant tumors?

Cancerous and spread through metastasis

What is Hereditary Colon Cancer(HNPCC)?

A type of cancer that is caused by 4 types of mutated genes. MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, PMS2

What is lynch syndrome?

Also known as HNPCC and is a type of inheritable cancer

What is gel electrophoresis?

Method of separating DNA, RNA, or even proteins by size and charge

What are restriction enzymes?

proteins produced by bacteria that cuts DNA at specific sites. (Restriction endonucleases)

What are palindromic sequences?

nucleic acid sequence in a double-stranded DNA or RNA molecule where both strands are identical

What is the serial dilution formula?

C1V1=C2V2

What is the cell cycle?

The cell cycle is a process of growth and division for cells

What is mitosis?

Creates two daughter cells from a single parent cell. also means thread for its threadlike appearance.

What is meiosis and what does it create at the end?

Reduces the number of chromosomes from 2n to n in a cell to create gametes (reproductive cells)

The end goal is four daughter cells with a variety of chromosomes to allow for genetic diversity in offspring

What is crossing over and when does it occur?

Occurs during prophase I and allows for genetic diversity in the world and is the reason why you are not 100% like your parents or siblings

What is the chiasmata?

Where the homologous chromosomes cross over and genetic material is exchanged

What is autosomes?

non-sex related chromosomes

What is Topoisomerase?

alleviates any tension that is created by the unwinding of the double helix of DNA

What is Endonucleases?

It looks for specific areas in the DNA to cut. It is capable of making double strand breaks

What is Exonucleases?

It removes the areas that the endonucleases cut through

What is DNA Ligase?

It seals breaks in the DNA, allowing for the integration of the new DNA onto the existing strand

What is sex linkage?

Some genes are located on sex chromosomes, meaning some
individuals are more likely to express a trait (or disorder) than others

What are the male and female chromosmes?

male - XY

female - XX

What are some examples of sex linked traits?

Red-green color blindness, Hemophilia, Male pattern baldness, fragile X syndrome

What is phylum Ascomycota?

Most diverse fungal phylum

What is the ascus?

The defining feature is a microscopic sexual structure. Ascospores are formed there

What is Plasmogamy?

The fusion of two hyphae together

What is the Dikaryotic stage?

Cells have two haploid nuclei

What is the karyogamy stage?

Nuclei fuse together and create one diploid nucleus

What happens in meiosis in ascomycetes?

Results in four cells haploid ascospores

What happens in mitosis in ascomycetes?

Cells divide to form eight ascospores in an ascus

What happens in the dispersal stage?

Mature ascus release the ascospores to start a new mycelium

What is sordoria fimicola?

It is a microscopic ascomycete thats life cycle is usually 1 to 2 weeks

What is gene linkage?

The tendency of genes that are located close to each other on
the same chromosome to be inherited together during meiosis

What is genetic mapping?

When 2 traits are regularly inherited together and we can determined that those genes are close together on a chromosome.

What is the recombination frequency?

Calculating the frequency of recombination events between genes.

total recombination's/total offspring's) x 100

What is the central dogma of biology?

Theory that describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to Proteins

What is transcription?

Making a copy of RNA from a genes DNA sequence. Also produces mRNA from segments of DNA to produce proteins

What is translation?

The strand of mRNA is decoded to produce a particular sequence of amino acids (proteins)

What are peptide chains?

chains of amino acids that have the same basic structure. (amino acid, carboxy group, and a side chain)

What is protein structure?

Caused by the interaction of amino acids in the linear
sequence. There are four levels of protein structure.

What is the primary protein structure?

The linear sequence of amino acids. A straight chain often called a polypeptide

What is the secondary protein structure?

Folding patterns caused by hydrogen bonds between the polypeptide backbone. Formation of alpha helices and beta sheets

What is the tertiary protein structure?

Interactions between amino acid side chains causes a 3D structure to begin forming. These can be ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, Van der Waals interactions, and disulfide bonds

What is the quaternary protein structure?

Multiple polypeptides arrange to create a protein complex

What is sickle cell anemia?

A codominant genetic disorder caused by a single nucleotide
missense mutation. It aroused by natural selection

What is codominance?

If an individual is heterozygous one allele does not mask the
other, they are both expressed at the same time

What happens in chromosome 11?

The sixth nucleotide in the sequence changes from adenine (A)
to thymine (T), changing the amino acid from glutamate/glutamic acid to valine. This cause the shape of the hemoglobin beta gene to change shape

What are centrosomes?

where the tubules or spindle comes from

What are sister chromatids?

Identical copies of a chromosome formed by DNA replication

What is a centromere?

The part where sister chromatids are joined together

What is cohesin?

Cohesin forms rings that hold the sister chromatids together in prophase

What is condensin?

Condensin forms rings that coil the chromosomes into highly
compact forms in prophase

What are kinetochores?

A complex of proteins positioned at the centromere. microtubules attach to the kinetochores to connect to the chromosomes.

What are interpolar microtubules?

They extend from the spindle pole across the equator, almost to the opposite spindle pole

What are astral microtubules?

They extend from the spindle pole to the cell membrane

What is anaphase a?

The kinetochore microtubules shorten and draw the chromosomes toward the spindle poles.

What is anaphase b?

The astral microtubules that are anchored to the cell membrane pull the poles further apart and the interpolar microtubules slide past each other, exerting additional pull
on the chromosomes

What is the cleavage furrow?

The cell membrane pinches in at the cell equator. The position of the furrow depends on the position of the astral and
interpolar microtubules during anaphase.

What are sex chromosomes?

They determine whether an individual is male or female. XY and XX

What is a zygote?

Egg and sperm join to make this and they develop into an offspring

What is recombination?

Homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange stretches of DNA which makes new allele combinations

true or false. Unlinked genes, whether on the same or different chromosomes, are inherited separately 50% of the time.

true