Anatomy and physiology are absolutely interrelated subjects in which...
Structures at all levels are defined and also used to understand the dynamic function of a living organism
Specialized systems within the body support each other’s operation so that...
Complex responses are possible to a myriad of changing environmental conditions
The skin provides protection and vitamin D for the skeletal system, which in turn...
Provides structural support, calcium storage, and blood cells for the skin
The definition of anatomy
The study of structure and the relationships among structures
Subdivisions of anatomy
Surface anatomy, gross anatomy, systemic anatomy, regional anatomy, radiographic anatomy, developmental anatomy, embryology, cytology, and pathological anatomy
The definition of physiology
The study of how body structures function
Subdivisions of physiology
Cell physiology, systems physiology, pathophysiology, exercise physiology, neurophysiology, endocrinology, cardiovascular physiology, immunophysiology, respiratory physiology, renal physiology, and reproductive physiology
The human body consist of these several levels of structural organizations
Cells, Tissues, Organs, Systems, and Organism
Cells
Basic structural and functional units of a living organism
Tissues
Groups of similarly specialized cells and the substance surrounding them that usually arise from a common ancestor and perform certain special functions
Organs
Structures of definite form that are composed of two or more different tissues and have specific functions
Systems
Associations of organs that have a common function
Human Organism
Collection of structurally and functionally integrated systems
The systems of the human body
Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive
Life processes in humans
Metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction
Metabolism
Sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body, including catabolism and anabolism
Ex. Blood work
Responsiveness
Ability to detect and respond to changes in the external or internal environment
Movement
Motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, or even organelles inside cells
Growth
Increase in size and complexity, due to an increase in the number of cells, size of cells, or both
Differentiation
Change in a cell from an unspecialized state to a specialized state
Ex. Cells come of of mitosis and do what they are specialized to do depending on the type of DNA
Reproduction
The formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement (Mitosis), or to the production of a new individual
The definition of homeostasis
Condition in which the body's internal environment remains within certain physiological limits
Fluid outside body cells
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
Extracellular fluid (EFC) is found in
Filling the narrow spaces between cells or in blood/lymphatic vessels
Extracellular fluid (ECF) filling the narrow spaces between cells of tissue
Interstitial fluid, intercellular fluid, or tissue fluid
Extracellular fluid (ECF) in blood vessels
Plasma
Extracellular fluid (ECF) in lymphatic vessels
Lymph
Fluid within cells
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
Because extracellular fluid (ECF) is in constant motion throughout the body and also surrounds all body cells
Body's internal environment
An organism is said to be in homeostasis when its internal environment:
Contains the optimum concentration of gases, nutrients, ions, and water; has an optimal temperature (100.4 oF), and has an optimal volume for the health of the cells
Stress
Any external or internal stimulus that creates and imbalance in the internal environment
If a stress acts on the body, homeostatic mechanisms attempt to
Counteract the effects of the stress and bring the condition back to normal
Homeostasis is regulated by
The nervous and endocrine systems acting together or independently
In order to regulate homeostasis, the nervous system
Detects body changes and sends nerve impulses to counteract the stress
In order to regulate homeostasis, the endocrine system
Secretes hormones
Nerve impulses cause _____ changes, while hormones work more _____.
Rapid; Slowly
Feedback system (loop)
A cycle of events in which information about the status of a condition is continually monitored and fed back (reported) to a central control region
Any stress that changes a controlled condition
Stimulus
Three basic components in a feedback system
Control center, receptor, and effector
Control center
Determines that point at which a controlled condition should be maintained
Receptor
Monitors changes in the controlled condition and then sends the information, called the input, to the control center
Effector
Receives information, called the output, from the control center and produces a response (effect)
Will always include muscle response
If a response reverses the original stimulus; Maintain conditions that require frequent monitoring and adjustment within physiological limits
The definition of negative feedback system (loop)
If a response enhances the original stimulus; Regulate conditions that do not occur often and do not require continual fine-tuning
The definition of positive feedback system (loop)
Example of negative feedback
Homeostasis of Blood Pressure
Example of positive feedback
Labor contractions
Disruptions of homeostasis can lead to
Disease or death
Disease
Any change from a state of health, characterized by symptom or sign
Local disease
One that affects one part or a limited area of the body
Systemic disease
Affects either the entire body or several parts of the body
Symptoms
Subjective changes in the body functions that are not apparent to an observer
Signs
Objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure
Examples of symptoms
Pain, nausea, sensitivity, dizziness, weakness
Examples of signs
Discoloration, O2, HR, BP, fever, rash
Diagnosis
Art of distinguishing one disease from another or determining the nature of a disease generally after taking of a medical history and the administration of a physical examination
Use of anatomical position
Standardized method of observing or imagining the body that allows precise and consistent anatomical references
Description of anatomical postition
The subject stands erect facing the observer, the upper extremities are places at the sides, the palms of the hands are turned forward, and the feet are flat on the floor
Regional names
Terms given to specific regions of the body for reference
Examples of regional names
Cranial (skull), thoracic (chest), bracial ( arm), patellar (knee), cephalic (head) and gluteal (buttock)
Directional terms
Used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another and to reduce length of explanations
Examples of directional terms
Dorsal, superior, inferior, medial, and distal
Planes
Imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body or organs into definite areas
Principal planes
Midsagittal (median) and parasagittal, frontal (coronal), and transverse (cross-sectional or horizontal)
Sections
Flat surfaces resulting from cuts through body structures; named according to the plane on which the cut is made
Body cavities
Spaces in the body that contain internal organs
6 ventral. 2 dorsal.
Body cavities are separated by these structures
Muscles, bones, or ligaments
The two principal body cavities
Dorsal and central cavities
Dorsal cavity is subdivided into
The cranial cavity and the vertebral canal
Cranial cavity contains
The brain
Vertebral canal contains
The spinal cord and beginnings of spinal nerves
The ventral cavity is subdivided by
The diaphragm into an upper thoracic cavity and a lower abdominopelvic cavity
Thoracic cavity contains
Two pleural cavities and the mediastinum, which includes the pericardial cavity
Pleural cavities _____ the lungs, while pericardial cavity _____ the heart
Enclose; surround
Pleural and pericardual cavities are lined by
Serous membranes
Mediastinum
Broad, median partition between the lungs that extends from the sternum to the vertebral column and contains all contents of the thoracic cavity except the lungs
Abdominopelvic cavity
Divided into a superior abdominal and an inferior pelvic cavity
Viscera of the abdominal cavity include
Stomach, spleen, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine
Viscera of the pelvic cavity include
Urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, and internal female and male reproductive structures
The abdominopelvic cavity may divided into _____ regions by drawing ____ imaginary lines
Nine; four
The abdominopelvic cavity may be divided into _____ by passing imaginary horizontal and vertical lines through the umbilicus
Quadrants
Medical imaging
Essentional for diagnosis of many disorders
Commonly used medical imaging techniques
Conventional radiography, computer tomography (CT) scanning, dynamic spatial reconstruction (DSR), digital subtraction angiography (DSA), fluoroscopy, positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound (US)