Phylogeny
a branching diagram that reflects the evolutionary history of a group of organisms
How are species distinguished
morphological characteristics, molecular/genetic characteristics, biochemistry
How are species categorized
Kingdoms or domains
homology
phenotypic and genetic similarity due to shared ancestry
analogy
similarity due to convergent evolution
convergent evolution
occurs when similar environmental pressures and natural selection produce similar (analogous) adaptions in organisms from different evolutionary lineages
Genome
- comparing nucleic acids or other molecules to determine relatedness
Kingdoms
Monera (prokaryotes)
protista
plantae
fungi
animalia
Domains
bacteria
archaea
eukarya
KPCOFGS
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
Endosymbiotic Theory
mitochondria and chloroplasts in Eukaryotes came from symbiotic bacteria
Horizontal gene transfer
The movement of genes from one genome to another
Structure of Prokaryotes
no nucleus
no membrane bound organelles
bacteria and archaea
microscopic (usually)
spheres (cocci), rods (bacillu), spirals
Function of Prokaryotes
rapid reproduction
horizontal gene transfer
resting stages
dispersal
Nutritional Strategies
Phototroph
chemotroph
autotroph
heterotrophs
Protists Supergroups
excavate
SAR clade
archeplastida
unikonta
Protist
Anything that isn't a plant, animal, fungus, or bacteria
Excavata
Diplomonads and parabasalids
lack plastids
SAR clade
Stramenophiles
Alveolates
Rhizarians
Archaeplastida
parent group of modern land plants
red algae and green algae
Unikonts
Amoebozoans
Opisthokonts
animals, plants, fungi, and some protists
Protist Importance
Photosynthetic protists (producers, foundation of food web)
symbiotic (gut symbionts, dinoflagellates and coral)
Fungi Energy Source
Heterotroph (other + feed)
saprophytic (rotten + plant)
symbiotic (+/+)
parasitic (+/-)
Fungi Structure
Single-cell (yeast)
mycelia
hyphae
chitin
Fungal Mycelia
interwoven networks of branched hyphae adapted for absorption (drinking straw for nutrients)
Fungal Hyphae
tiny filaments with very high surface area (individual drinking straw)
Fungal chitin
Cell Wall
(equivalent of cellulose cell wall for plants)
Mycorrhizae
Delivers ions and minerals to plants
supply the fungi with organic nutrients (carbohydrates)
Haploid Cells
Spores
Plasmogamy
union of cytoplasm from 2 parent mycelia
Karyogamy
Haploid nuclei fuse, producing diploid cells
diploid phase undergoes meiosis, producing haploid spores
Generalized Life Cycle of Fungi
Sexual
Plasmogamy (fusion of cytoplasm)=heterokaryotic stage
karyogamy (fusion of nuclei)
meiosis--spores
germination--mycelium
Asexual
spore producing structures
spores
germination
Fungal Groups
Zygomycetes (ecologically diverse)
Glomeromycetes (mycorrhizal symbiosis with plant roots)
higher fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes)
Ascomycetes
Sac Fungi
produce sexual spores containing fruiting body
Basiodiomyctes
Mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi
Decomposers of wood
in response to environmental stimuli, mycelium reproduces sexually by producing fruit bodies
Lichen
Symbiotic association between a photosynthetic microorganism and a fungus
algae provide carbon compounds while fungi provide environment for growth
Derived Traits of Land Plants
Alternation of generations
multicellular, dependent embryos
walled spores produced in sporangia
multicellular gametangia (reproductive structures)
apical meristems
Gametophyte
haploid
gametes produced by mitosis
gametes fuse to form diploid zygote
Sporophyte
diploid
produces haploid spores my meiosis
spores grow into haploid gametophytes
Alternation of Generation
Gametophyte=mitosis=fertilization=mitosis
sporophyte=meiosis=spore=gametophyte
archegonia
Female gametangia, produce eggs are are the site of fertilization
antheridia
male gametangia, produce and release sperm
stomata
specialized cells that allow for gas exchange between the outside air and the plant
cuticle
waxy covering of the epidermis
Bryophyte
Nonvascular plant
mosses
dominated by gametophytes
Xylem
conducts most of the water and minerals
phloem
has cells arranged into tubes that distribute sugars, amino acids, and other organic products
Sporophylls
modified leabes with sporangia
Sporangia
capsule containing haploid spores
Sori
clusters of sporangia on the underside of sporophylls
Megaspores
give rise to female gametophytes
heterosporous
Microspores
Give rise to male gametophytes
Heterosporous
Seed
consists of embryo and nutrients surrounded by protective coat
Seed plants
reduced gametophytes (microscopic)
heterospory
pollen (air borne)
ovules
Conifers
seeds that are exposed on sporophylls that form cones
Megasporangium
diploid tissue where haploid megaspore is formed (meiosis)
Megaspore
Haploid cell that grows into the female gametophyte
Gymnosperm Phyla
Coniferophyte
cycadophyte
gnetophyta
ginkgophyta
Derived Traits of seed plants
reduced gametophytes
heterospory
ovules
pollen
seeds