Earthquake
A sudden release of energy in the lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
Volcano
A fissure or vent in Earths surface through which lava, gas and other volcanic materials are irrupted.
Earth's structure
Inner core, outer core, mantle, asthenosphere, lithosphere (includes crust)
Divergent (constructive) plate boundaries
When the plates more away from each other creating new land, earthquakes and volcanoes.
Convergent (destructive) plate boundaries
When oceanic crust moves underneath the continental crust in the act of subduction, creating volcanoes and earthquakes.
Collision plate boundary
When two tectonic plates collide but have simian density so neither is subjected causing them to rise and form mountains and earthquakes.
Conservative plates
When plates slide past each other creating friction and earthquakes but no volcanoes.
Hot spot
When magma plume congregates and rises in one part of the plate creating a volcano and island.
Viscosity
The thickness of the lava, either high (thick, set sooner) or low (runny, travels far)
Stratovolcano
A cone shaped volcano that has viscous lava and has more violent eruptions due to gas buildup in this thick lava.
Shield volcano
Short and wide volcanoes that have less dangerous eruptions.
Lahar
Mass of flowing volcano debris and water, with simian consistency too wet concrete.
Focus
The place where the press is released underground during an earthquake.
Epicenter
The place on the surface vertically above the focus of an earthquake.
Drainage basin
Area of land where precipitation collects and drains off.
Watershed
Mountain or ridge of land that separates water flow.
Tributary
A river or stream that joins a larger river or stream.
Confluence
The point where a tributary joins the main river.
River source
The place where a river begins at the top of a mountain.
River mouth
Where the river enters a large body of water like an ocean or sea.
Transpiration
The loss of water vapour from a plant.
Evapotranspiration
The total amount of water vapour sent into the sky from evaporation and transpiration.
Interception
Plants and foliage intercepting water from getting to the ground.
Infiltration
Water passing through the soil or surface of the ground.
Permeability
How easy or hard it is for the water to enter into ground.
Percolation
Water travelling through the deeper levels of the soil until it reaches ground water.
Water table
The level of ground water.
Overland flow or surface run off
Flow of water on the surface when the soil can't take anymore into rivers or streams.
River discharge
Volume of water flowing through a river channel, measured in cubic metres per second (cumecs)
Load
Material carried by a stream or river.
Hydraulic action
Water directly eroding and removing material from the river banks.
Abrasion
Load crashes into the river banks eroding them away.
Attrition
Breaking up and smoothing of the load as they crash together and break down.
Solution (corrosion)
Rocks such as limestone dissolve in the presence of water.
Traction
Heavy rocks and boulders move by rolling along the riverbed.
Saltation
Small pebbles and stones move by being bounced along the riverbed.
Suspension
Very light materials are carried near the surface of the river giving the river its colour.
Solution
Minerals are dissolved and carried in water.
Deposition
When the river no longer has sufficient energy to carry material so deposits it.
Potholes
Cylindrical hollows that are usually dapper than they are wide.
Waterfall
Vertical drop of water.
Meander
Bends in a river.
Ox-bow lake
A separate body of water that is present shaped that is created when the necks of meanders join together cutting it off.
Flood plain
There area a river floods when it exceeds its tankful discharge.
Levee
Raised bank of a river bed.
Braided channel
When a river bed splits into multiple channels creating many smaller rivers when there is not much water.
Deltas
The point where the rivers meet the sea, it is usually triangular shaped because of deposition.
Recurrence interval
Identifying the frequency of floods in an area and chances of them happening again in the area.
Littoral zone
The area near the shore on the coast that can be affected by wave action.
Surf zone
Area where waves form and crash.
Foreshore
Area between the high and low water mark.
Backshore
The actual beach of the sand dunes.
Fetch
The distance of open sea the wind can blow without obstruction.
Constructive waves
Waves with low energy that have stronger swashes than backwashes.
Destructive waves
Tall and powerful waves that have a strong backwash.
Headland
A cliff that sticks out into the sea and is surrounded by water on three sides.
Discordant coastline
Coastlines that have alternating bands of soft and hard rock.
Longshore drift
The movement of deposition along a coastline due to the waves moving along in a zigzag, because of the angled direction of the wind.
Sand spit
An extended stretch of beach at one end of the coastline caused by longshore drift.
Sand bar
A strip of deposited sand blocking of a body of water.
Sand dunes
Large piles of sand that form at the back of sandy beaches.
Coral reef
An underwater ecosystem that consists of coral polys that excrete calcium carbonate.
Fringing reef
A reef that grows on the coastline of an island or body of land.
Barrier reef
A reef that is parallel to the shore but is separated by a channel of water.
Atoll
Circular or oval shaped reef with no land mass in the centre.
Mangroves
A group of trees that live on the coastline.
Hard engineering
Building artificial structures to try control natural processes.
Dolos
A concrete block that dissipates wave energy.
Groynes
Structures built at a right angle to the beach to stop longshore drift.
Offshore breakwater
A structure parallel to the shore intercepting incoming waves.
Gabions
Rocks in cages used to prevent coastal erosion.
Soft engineering
Controlling natural processes using natural methods.
Beach nourishment
Replacing sand lost by transportation with sand from the sea bed.
Managed retreat
Allowing coastline to retreat in certain areas that matter least economically.
Red-lining
Planning permission for an area is stopped so no more value is added to an area at risk of erosion.
Tropical storm
A powerful low-pressure weather system with high precipitation and winds.
Storm surge
A rise in sea level caused by a storm as the waves agin energy causing flooding.
Thermometer
Device used to measure temperature.
Relative humidity
The amount of water present in the air as a percentage of the total amount of water vapour the air can hold.
Rain gauge
An instrument used to measure precipitation, it consists of a funnel and is measured in mm.
Weather
The day-to-day condition of the atmosphere.
Climate
The average weather conditions in a particular location based on the average weather experienced there over 30 years or more.
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the weight of air pressing down on us.
Barometer
This is the device that can be used to measure the atmospheric pressure of a place. Usually an aneroid barometer will contain a small vacuum chamber that will expand and contract with the changing air pressure.
Isobar map
Map with lines connecting areas with the same atmospheric pressure.
Anemometer
The device that can be used to measure the speed that the wind is blowing in.
Wind vane
A device that shows the direction wind is coming from.
Cumulus cloud
A fluffy white cloud that looks like cotton wool.
Cirrus cloud
A wispy cloud that is found in high altitudes and is made form ice crystals.
Stratus cloud
These are clouds that are low, usually one consistent colour, and cover the sky like a blanket.
Oktas
This is the measurement for cloud cover. Each okta makes up one eight of the sky.
Equatorial climate
Climate near equator where rainforests are found, it is hot and wet all year round.
Desert climate
A dry climate with little rain all year round, with a distinct temperature change for summer and winter.
Salt flat
The ground is infertile with a hard salt flat.