What contributes exclusively to the formation of the face, nasal cavities, mouth, larynx, pharynx, and neck
the pharyngeal arches
What does the first pharyngeal arch develop
maxillary and mandibular prominences
What does the second pharyngeal arch form
part of the hyoid bone
what does the first arch cartilage form
malleus an dincus
what does the second arch cartilage form
the stapes and the styloid process of the temporal bone
what do the fourth and sixth arch cartilages form
the laryngeal cartilages
what is the fifth pharyngeal arch
rudimentary and has no derivatives
what does the first pharyngeal arch form
the muscles of mastication
what does the second pharyngeal arch form
the stapedius, stylohyoid, posterior belly of digastric, auricular and muscles of facial expression
what does the fourth arch form
cricothyroid, levator veli palatini and constictors of pharynx
what does the sixth pharyngeal arch form
the intrinsic muscles of the larynx
what does the first pharyngeal groove form
part of the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
what does the second pharyngeal pouch become
the palatine tonsils
what does the third pharyngeal pouch become
inferior parathyroid gland
what does the fourth pharyngeal pouch become
superior parathyroid gland
what are melanocytes
migratory neural crest cells that invade the epidermis and give us color in our skin
what are langerhans cells
from bone marrow, immune system macrophage
what are merkel cells
pressure detecting mechanoreceptors - prominent in thick skin
what is melanoma
cancer of melanocyte - deadly
what is basal cell carcinoma (BCC)
most common cancer, high cure rate, frozen off by liquid nitrogen
what are the epidermal layers (top to bottom)
stratum corneum, stratum lucidum (only in thick skin), stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale
what are fontanelles
soft spots between skull bones in babies that allow for brain growth and passage through the birth canal
what are the purposes of fontanelles
allow for brain growth and passage through the birth canal
what do osteocytes do
maintain / form bone tissue
what are the zones of growth in bone
zone of resting cartilage, zone of proliferating cartilage, zone of hypertrophic cartilage, and zone of calcified cartilage
how do steroids (also known as lipid-soluble hormones) exert their effects in cells
act on intracellular receptors that directly activate genes / can enter cell
how do amino-acid based hormones (also known as water-soluble hormones) exert their effects in cells
act on plasma membrane receptors via G protein second messengers / cannot enter cell
what is a thromboembolism
a clot that moves through unbroken blood vessels
what is the parent cell for all formed elements of blood
hemocytoblasts
what is up-regulation
target cells form more receptors in response to low hormone levels
what is down-regulation
target cells lose receptors in response to high hormone levels
what blood type is the universal donor
O-
what are the reasons for the difference in blood measurements between males and females
males have testosterone growth hormones and women lose blood once a month (menstri)
what is the normal pH of blood
7.35 - 7.45
features of erythrocytes
anucleate, major factor contributing to blood viscosity, dedicated to respiratory gas transport, hemoglobin transports oxygen
how does the second-messenger mechanism of hormone action operate
by binding to specific receptors and employing the services of G proteins and cAMP
hormones should always _____
be available, and they must have receptors and target cells
what are the triggers for erythropoiesis
hormone erythropoietin (EPO)
what is the cardinal signs of diabetes
polyuria - huge urine output
polydipsia - excessive thirst
polyphagia - excessive hunger and food consumption
what are excrine glads
have ducts to carry secretion to membrane surface (outside body, inot body cavity, or onto body surface) and produce non-hormonal sunstances
what are endocrine glands
produce hormones and do not have ducts (dumped directly into blood stread
what is a half-life
time required for hormone blood level to decrease by half
where are oxytocin and antidiuretic hormones made
the hypothalamus
where are oxytocin and antidiuretic hormones stored and released
posterior pituitary
what are the anterior pituitary hormones
- Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Luteinizing hormone (LH/LSH)
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotropin
- Prolactin (PRL)
- Growth hormone (GH)
Ms.FLATPiG
what are the posterior pituitary hormones
Oxytocin and ADH (antidiuretic hormones)
What hormone is a strong stimulant of uterine contraction and triggers milk ejection
oxytocin
what is the function of ADH
inhibits or prevents urine formation, inhibited by alcohol
what does hypersecretion of growth hormones in children result in
gigantism
what does hypersecretion of growth hormones in adults result in
acromegaly
what does hyposecretion of growth hormones in children result in
pituitary dwarfism
what is the function of thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropan)
stimulates normal development and secretory activity of thyroid, release triggered by thyrotropin-releasing hormone from hypothalamus, inhibited by rising blood levels of thyroid hormones
what is the function of adrenocorticotropic hormone
stimulates adrenal cortex to release corticosteriods
what is the function of prolactin
stimulates milk production
what does parafollicular cells produce
calcitonin
what are the two components of thyroid hormone (TH)
T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triodothyronine)
thyroid hormone is a
major metabolic hormone
hyposecretion of thyroid hormone in adults can result in
myxedema or goiter
hyposecretion of thyroid hormone in infants can result in
cretinism
hypersecretion of thyroid hormone can result in
graves' disease
what do oxyphil cells and cheif cells secrete
parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone
what is the most important hormone in Ca2+ homeostasis
parathyroid hormone (PTH), it puts calcium into the blood
what are the two signs of hypoparathyroidism
chvostek's sign and trousseau's sign
describe chvostek's sign
tapping along the course of the facial nerve causing muscle contractions
describe trousseau's sign
inflating a blood pressure cuff on the arm for several minutes induces carpal spasm
what are the three layers of the adrenal cortex
zona glomerulosa which produces mineralocorticoids (salt)
zona fasciculata which produces glucocorticoids (sugar)
zona reticularis which produces gonadocorticoids (sex)
what is the most potent mineralocordticoid
aldosterone
what is aldosteronism and what are the effects of it
hypersecretion due to adrenal tumors
effects: hypertension and edema due to excessive Na+ and excretion of K+ leading to abnormal function of neurons and muscles
what is cushing's syndrome
hypersecretion of glucocorticoids
depresses cartilage and bone formation, inhibits inflammation, depresses immune system, truncal obesity, "buffalo hump" fat on the upper back
what is addison's disease
hyposecretion of glucocorticoids
decrease in glucose and Na+ levels, wight loss, severe dehydration, hypotension, and bronzing of the skin
what do pinealocytes secrete
melatonin
what do acinar cells produce
enzyme-rich juice for digestion
what do pancreatic islets produce
alpha cells produce glucagon (hyperglycemic hormone) and beta cells produce insulin (hypoglycemic hormone)
what is glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
what is gluconeogenesis
synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrates
what does insulin do
puts glucose back into cells
what is diabetes mellitus (DM)
due to hyposecretion(type 1) or hypoactivity (type 2) of insulin
what is glycosuria
glucose spilled into urine / means insulin is not functioning properly
should you give sugar or insulin first when you are unsure of someones blood glucose level
give sugar first because it is easier to reverse the effects of the sugar than it would be to reverse the effects of insulin
where are the only places you can find thick skin
palms of hands and bottoms of feet
what is another name for red blood cells
erythrocytes
what is another name for white blood cells
leukocytes
what is another name for thrombocytes
white blood cells
what does blood carry
heat
what is hemotopoiesis
blood cell formation in red bone marrow
what is iron stored in cells as
ferritin an dhemosiderin
what is iron transported in blood with
transferrin
can hematopoietic stem cells change after they have been commited
no
what is thalassemias
one or more globin chain(s) absent or faulty
what is sickle-cell anemia
caused by hemoglobin S, treated with an agent induced hemoglobin F
what is the function of leukocytes
defense against disease
how do leukocytes leave the capillaries
diapedesis
what is the most numerous white blood cell
neutrophils
what is the biggest job of neutrophils
to fight bacteria (bacteria slayers)
when are eosinophils elevated
allergic reactions and asthma
what is the rarest white blood cell
basophils
what is histamine
an inflammatory chemical, causes vasodilation allows leukocytes to go into the cells
what are the two types of lymphocytes
T cells and B cells
where do T cells mature
thymus
where do B cells mature
bones
what do monocytes become when they leave
macrophages
what is leukopenia
abnormally low white blood cell count
what is epstein - barr virus
an infectious mononucleosis that causes mono and many other dangerous diseases
what are platelets (thrombocytes)
cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes
what is petechiae
dysfunction that causes tiny blood spots on the skin
how can circulating platelets keep inactive and mobile
with nitric oxide (NO) which is made by endothelial cells
what do osteoblasts do
build the bone
what do osteoclasts do
break down the bone (type of macrophage)
how are compact bones arranged
in units called osteons
what are canaliculi
little valves that connect osteocytes
what do all embryonic connective tissue begin as
mesenchyme
what is the only way bones can grow in thickness/diameter
appositional growth
what are the factors that affect bone growth
minerals, vitamins, hormones, exercise, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, vitamin C, and vitamin D
what does calcium and phosphorus do for bones
makes bone matrix hard
what is hypocalcemia
low blood calcium levels
what is scurvy
disorder due to a lack of vitamin C
what does a vitamin D deficiency cause in children
rickets
what hormones affect bone growth
human growth hormone, insulin, thyroid hormones, estrogen, and testosterone
what are the steps in fracture repair
formation of a fracture hematoma, fibrocartilaginous callus formation, bony callus formation, and bone remodeling
what is a greenstick fracture
bone breaks incompletely
what are synarthroses joints
immovable joints
what are amphiarthroses joints
slightly movable joints
what are diarthroses joints
freely movable joints
what joints are in the teeth
peg-in-socket joints
what does hyaline cartilage do
gives strength
what are most joints of the body
synovial joints
what makes synovial fluid
inner synovial membrane (articular capsule)
what is the purpose of synovial fluid
it lubricates and nourishes articular cartilage
a patient has little pearly bumps near her fingertips and claims they are warts. What does she have?
osteoarthritis, as inflammation continues it pushes synovial fluid out into bumps on the skin
where are hinge joints found
elbow and knees
where are ball and socket joints found
hip and shoulders
what is bursae
flattened fibrous sacs filled with synovial fluid
what is bursitis
inflammation of bursa, when the synovial fluid in bursae starts to crystallize with age
what is the tendon sheath
elongated bursa that wraps around tendon
what is tendonitis
inflammation of tendon sheath, caued by overuse
what is osteoporosis
loss of bone salts and collagen fibers, increased osteoclast activity and decreased osteoblast activity, more common in women
older woman i sworkin gin the yard, there was a pop then she fell. what is her diagnosis
osteoporosis
what is osteomalacia
loss of bone salts but not collagen due to poor diet, decreased absorption of calcium, and vitamin D deficiency
what is osteomyelitis
infection of the bone most commonly by staphylococcus aureus
what is osteoarthritis
inflammatory joint disease that is better in the morning and worse with work and worse on dominant side.
what is rheumatoid arthritis
inflammatory joint disease that is worse in the mornings and better with work, equally bad on both sides, autoimmune attacks against collagen in the bones at joints, swan neck deformity, common i females
what is gouty arthritis
build up of uric acid in joints due to metabolic problems, typically in males
patient has pain in knees while running, rashes in hairline, bacteria, borrelia burgdorferi, hiding behind knees, what does she have
lyme disease
patient is a 28 year old man with knee pain and positive for intracellular diplodocid, what does he have
gonorrhea
patient is growing out of her shoes at 33. what does she have
acromegaly, too much growth hormone
what is pristalsis
wave-like contraction of moving food along the tract distally
what is segmentation
churning motion of moving food along the tract distally
what are mechanoreceptors
detects change in shape and tells you to stop eating
what are chemoreceptors
detects chemical composition, tests pH through each section of the GI tract
what are short reflexes of the GI tract
enteric nerve plexuses respond to stimuli in GI tract (no need for central nervous system)
what are long reflexes of the GI tract
response to stimuli inside or outside GI tract (no need for central nervous system)
what is the visceral peritoneum
external surface of most digestive organs
what is the parietal peritoneum
lines body wall
what does the mesentery do
delivers blood to each section of body
what are the retroperitoneal organs
posterior (behind) peritoneum
What are the retroperitoneal organs
Suprarenal glands, aorta and inferior vena cava, duodenum, pancreas, uretes, colon, cisterna chyli, kidneys, esophagus, rectum (SAD PUCKER)
what is the mucosa
lines the lumen, covered with a layer of mucous which protects us from digesting ourselves
what is the lumen
space in the middle
what is muscularis externa responsible for
segmentation and peristalsis
what do sympathetic impulses do
inhibit digestive activities
what do parasympathetic impulses do
simulate digestive activities
what is the labial frenulum
median attachment of each lip to gum
what is the hard palate
palatine bones and palatine processes
what is the soft palate
formed of skeletal muscle
which parts of the tongue contain taste buds
fungiform and circumvallate
what part of the tongue don't contain taste buds
fillform
what is the fat digesting enzyme found in the mouth
lingual lipase
what is the enzyme that breaks down starches into simple sugars
amylase
what glands produce saliva
parotid, submandibular, sublingual
what is mumps
inflammation of parotid glands
what is the hardest substance in the body
enamel
what is under the enamel
dentin
what is under the dentin
pulp cavity
what is gingivitis
anaerobic bacteria infects the gums
what is periodontitis
result of neglecting gingivitis
what cells are the pharynx made of
stratified squamous epithelium lining
what are the gastroesophageal (cardiac) sphincters
surround cardial orifice
what is heartburn
stomach acid regurgitates into esophagus, likely with excessive food/ drink or stress, can lead to esophagitis, esophageal ulcers, or esophageal cancer via barrett esophagus
what is barrett esophagus
cells change from squamous to simple columnar at stomach due to excessive heartburn
what do gastric clands produce
gastric juice
what are the cell types of the gastric glands
mucous neck cells, parietal cells, chief cells, and enteroendocrine cells
what do parietal cells secrete
hydrochloric acid (HCL) and intrinsic factor (glycoprotein required for absorption of vitamin B12 in small intestines)
what do chief cells secrete
pepsin and lipages
what are the hormones in the enteroendocrine cells
somatostatin (stops digestive enzymes) and gastrin (stimulates release of digestive enzymes)
what is gastritis
inflammation caused by anything that breaches mucosal barrier
what is a peptic or gastric ulcer
erosions of stomach wall, severe reflux, caused by the helicobacter pylori bacteria, bleed in upper GI, and urine looks like coffee grounds
why is vitamin B12 needed in the body
for mature red blood cells
what can happen if there was a lack of the intrinsic factor
pernicious anemia, treated with B12 injections
how does the vagus nerve stimulation affect secretion
increases secretion
how does the sympathetic stimulation affect secretion
decreases secretion
what happens at the cephalic (reflex) phase of gastric secretion
conditioned reflex triggered by aroma, taste, thought, and sight
what happens at the gastric phase of gastric secretion
lasts 3-4 hours, stimulated by distension peptides, low acidity, gastrin, enteroendocrine G cells stimulated by caffeine, peptides, rising pH --> gastrin
what is the order of the subdivisions of the small intestines
duodenum --> jejunum --> ileum
what are the circular folds of the small intestines
permanent folds that force chyme to slowly spiral through lumen which increases absorption
what are the villi of the small intestines
extensions of mucosa with capillary bed and lacteal for absorption
what are the microvilli of the small intestines (brush border)
contain enzymes for carbohydrate and protein digestion
why does chemotherapy cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea
it targests rapidly dividing cells like the GI tract epithelium
what do peyer's patches do
protect especially distal part of mucosa against bacteria
what is the order of bile circulation
right and left hepatic ducts --> common hepatic duct --> cystic duct --> common bile duct --> hepatopancreatic duct --> empties through sphincter of oddi
what are the liver lobules
composed of plates of hepatocytes (liver cells), filter and process nutrient-rich blood
what is the protal triad at each corner of lobule (michey mouse sign)
hepatic artery: supplies oxygen (right ear)
hepatic portal vein: brings nutrient-rich blood (face)
bile duct: recieves bile from bile canaliculi (left ear)
what is hepatitis
inflammation of the liver
what is cirrhosis
progressive, chronic inflammation from chronic hepatitis or alcoholism
what are gallstones (biliary calculi)
causes by high cholesterol; too few bile salts, obstruct flow of bile from gallbladder, 4 F's (forty, female, fat, freaky), pain in right upper quadrant and right shoulder
what are the endocrine functions of the pancreas
pancreatic islets secrete insulin and glucagon, alpha cells secrete glucagon (increases blood glucose), beta cells secrete insulin (decreases blood glucose), glucose goes into the cells where it can be used
what are acini
clusters of secretory cells in the pancreas that secrete bicarbonate to balance pH of chyme, zymogen granules secrete the proenzyme
what stimulates gallbladder contractions
CCK
what does the ileocecal valve (sphincter) do
admits chyme into large intestine when gastroileal reflex enhances force of segmentation in ileum, and closes when chyme exerts backward pressure to prevent regurgitation into ileum
what is the teniae coli of the large intestines
ribbon of smooth muscle
what is the haustra of the large intestines
pouches that allow for expansion
what is the job of the large intestines
storage until it is time to be released and the absorption of water
patient has rebound tenderness pain in lower right quadrant - mcburney's point. what does this patient have?
appendicitis
what makes up the internal anal sphincter
smooth muscle (no control)
what makes up the external anal sphincter
skeletal muscle (control)
what is reclaimed by the large intestines during digestion
vitamins (made by bacterial flora), water, and electrolytes (Na+ and Cl-)
what is diverticulosis
having diverticula (little bumps / pimples)
what is diverticulitis
inflammation of diverticula
what is a common factor of irritable bowel syndrome
stress
what are the fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestines
K, A, D, E
what is celiac disease
immune reaction to gluten, typically in females, gluten causes villi and microvilli to flatten, thin body habitus
what is tracheoesophageal fistula
opening between esophagus and trachea have abnormal communication, causes choking / gagging while feeding in babies
what is cystic fibrosis
genetic disease, sodium channel problem, thick mucous that can block pancreatic duct and lungs
patient has a two-week long history of bowel movement issues, x-ray shows an apple core lesion, what do they have
colon cancer