Why is polarity the most important characteristic of water?

The reults of the polarity are hydrogen bonding, a high specific heat value, and its versatile solvent properties

A cell from heart muscle would more than likely contain an unusually proportion of

Mitochondria

What part of cellular respiration produces the greatest amount of atp?

Electron transport chain

The Krebs and Calvin cycles both result in a net production of what?

ATP, NADH

Why is it important for cells to undergo mitosis?

Mitosis produces cells for growth and repair body tissue.

How is information transformed to make a protein?

DNA-RNA-protein

Hierarchic system of classification

Kingdom , Phylum, Class, order, family, Genus, Species

Allels

any of several forms of a gene , usually arising through mutation , that are responsible for heredity variation

Amino Acids

Any of a class of organic compounds that contain at least one amino group , -NH , and are carboxyl group, -COOH: The alpha amino acids , are building blocks from which proteins are constructed

Anaphase

Begins when chromosomes start to seperate.In this phase , the chromosome are considered seperate chromosomes.

Binary Fission

Fission into two organisms approxiamtley equal in size. Type of a sexual reproduction; parent cell splits into two identical daughter cells

Cellular Membrane

*Mosst important component of the cell, contributing to protection, communication, and the passage of substances into and out of the cell.
*Consists of a bilayer of phospholipids with proteins, cholesterol, and glycoproteins.
*Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules, this bilayer creates a hydrophobic region between the two layers of lipids, making it seletively permeable.

Chloroplasts

*Found in plants and are the sites of photosynthesis
*Produce cell energy

Chromosomes

Compact rod-shaped bodies located with in the nucleus of a cell; contain DNA

Codon

Three base sequence of messnger RNA ; each sequence of nucleotides in mRNA that base pairs with DNA base triplet.
* These code for a specific amino acid

Cytoplasm

Cellular contents betwenn the plasma membrane and the nucleus includes cytosol and organelles

Cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm into two cells. It is achieved by the motor protein myosin pulling microfilaments of actin in the terminal web of the cytoskeleton . This creates a crease called the cleavage furrow around the equator of the cell, and eventually pinches into two

cytosol

fluid that surronds the organelles

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

A unique molecule specific to a particular organism; it contains the genetic code that is necessary for replication.
*they described a double helical structure that contains the four nitrogenous babses adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. Each base forms hydrogen bonds wiht another base of the complimentry strand. A-T, G-C.

Electron Transport Chain

Series of steps in cellular respiration that produces water and ATP. The energy harvest here is remarkable. for every glucose molecule, 28 to 32 ATP molecules can be produced.

Exocytosis

membrane enclose "secretory" vesicles form inside cell, fuse with plasma membrane, and release their contents into extracellular fliud

Endocytosis

materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed by plasma membrane

Glycolysis

Anaerobic breakdown of glucose; first step in cellular respiration. The conversion of glucose to pyruvate. This takes place in the cystol of the cell and produces 2 molecules of ATP, 2 molecules of pyruvate, and two molecules of NADH.

Lysosomes

Intracellular digestion. Packed with hydrolitic enzymes, lysososmes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, sugars, and nucleic acids.

Golgi Apparatus

Cell organelle that packages, processes, and distributes molecules from the er throughout the cell

Vacuoles

Membrane-enclosed structures, Plants have central vacuole that function as storage, waste disposal, protection, and hydrolysis.

Heterozygous

trait in an organism that contains different allels

Homozygous

Trait in an organism that contains identical allels

Hypotonic Solution

Has lower concentration of solutes than cytosol, so water enters cells faster than it leaves causing cells to swell and burst

Hypertonic Solution

Has higher concentration of solutes than cytosol, so water moves out of cells faster than it moves causing cells to shrink

Interphase

Stage of cell during which growth and DNA sysnthesis occur

Isotonic soluton

Concentration of solutes same on both sides of membrane, so water enters and exits at same rate and cells maintain normal shape and volume

Krebs cycle

Series of reactions that occur in the mitochondrion during cellular respiration. For a single consumed glucose molecule , 2 ATP molecules, six molecules of carbon dioxide, and six NADH molecules are produced.

Meiosos

* The special cell division that takes place in the gonads ( the ovaries and the testes) . In the process of meiosis, the chromosomes number is reduced from 46 to 23 , so when the egg and the sperm unite in fertilization the zygote will have the correct number of chromosomes
* Type of nuclear division that occurs as part of sexual reproduction; each daughter cell recieves the haploid number of chromosomes

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Type of RNA formed from a template of DNA; this functions as a messenger form the original DNA helix in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the ctosol or on the rough ER. Here the ribosomes acts as the site of translation.

Metabolic pathway

Series of linked chemical reactions ; steps where reactions take place in a cell
*Progressing from a standpoint of high energy to low energy.
*All of the reactions are catalyzed by the use of enzymes.

Metaphase

All of the chromosomes align along the metaphase plate or the center of the cell.

Metaphase plate

Disk form during metaphase in which the chromosomes align in a quatorial plane of the cell

Mitosis

* The process in which the DNA is duplicated and distributed evenly to two daughter cells
* Type of cell division that produces two identical daughter cells; phases include prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Mitochondria

*Produce cell energy
*Found in most eukaryotic cells and are the site of cellular respiration

Organelles

Any of many cell "organs" or organized components

Phagocytosis

Process in which cells engulf food particles through the cell membrane

Phospholipids

Phosphate- containing fat molecule; forms the bilayer of a cell membrane. Consists of two fatty acids of vatying length bonded to a phosphate group . The phosphate group is charged and therefore polar.

Photosynthesis

Chemical process that converts light energy to synthesize carbohydrates. Consists of two seperate stages.
*The light reaction are those that convert solar energy to chemical energy. The cell accomplishes the production of ATP by absorbing light and using that energy to split a water molecule and transfer the electron, creating NADPH, and then producing ATP.These molecules are then used in the calvin cycle.
*The sugar produced is polymerized and stored as a polymer of glucose. These sugars are consumed by organism or by the plant itself to produce energy by cellular respiration

Plasma Membrane

Encloses and protects cell and contains functional protein such as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions, receptors and bind ligands and regulate cellular activity , tansporters that regulate what enters and exits cell, and cell idenity markers

Prophase

The chromosomes are visibly seperate, and each duplicated chromosome has two noticable sister chromatids.

Prometaphase

The nuclear envelope begins to disappear, and the chromosomes begin to attach to the spindle that is formong along the axis of the cell

Ribosomes

*Organelles that read the RNA produced in the nucleus and translate the genetic instructions to produce proteins.
*Cells with a high rate of protein sysnthesis generally have large number of ribosomes.
* ribosomes are found in two locations, Bound are found in Er, and free are in the cytoplasm. The two are interchangeable and have identical structures.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Nucleic acid found in both nucleus and cytoplasm of cell; occurs in three forms: mRNA, ribosomal RNA , and tRNA. It is used in transfer and as a messenger in most species of the genetic code.

Rough ER

Section of endoplasmic reticulum that is covered with ribosoms; responsible for protein sysnthesis and membrane production

Smooth Er

Section of the endoplasmic reticulum that lacks ribosomes; functions in detoxification and metabolism of multiple molecules.

Steroids

Lipid that is a component of a cell membrane; many steroids are precursors to significant hormones.

Stop Codon

Sequence of bases that terminates translation during protein synthesis

Telophase

Chromosomes gather on eihter side of the now seperating cell.

Transcription

*An RNA strand complementary to the original strand of DNA is produced. The piece of genetic material produced is messenger RNA (mRNA)
*Process during protein synthesis in which the DNA molecule is used as a template to form mRNA. The RNA strand has nitrogenous bases, identical to those in in DNA with the exception of uracil, which is substituted for thymine.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

RNA involved in protein sysnthesis; trnasfers a specific amino acid to the ribosomes and binds to mRNA

Water

* The most significant aspect of water is the polarity of its bonds. It is the polar nature of water that allows for hydrogen bonding between molecules.
*Water's high specific heat.This allows water to resist shifts in temperature.
*Hydrogen bonding also results in cohesive and adhesive properties. Cohesion id the ability of a molecule to stay bonded or attracted to another molecule of the same substance. Adhesion is the ability of water to bond or attract other molecules or substances.
*When water freezes it formsa a lattice , which causes the molecules to spread apart, resulting in the phenomenon of floating.
*Polarity of water also allows acts as a universal solvent . Water can be used to dissolve a number of different substances

Carbohydrates

are generally long chains, or polymers of sugars. They have many functions and serve many different purposes. The most important of these is storage , structure ,and energy.

Biological molecules

The most important molecules are
Carbohydrates
Lipids
proteins
nucleic acids

Lipids

Better known as fats , but specifically fatty acids, phospholipids, and steroids

Fatty Acids

Vary greatly, but simply are grouped into two categories , saturated and unsaturated
*Hydrocarbon tail of the faty acids is nonpolar. Which is important in the function of cellular membranes. The molecules combine in a way that creates a barrier that protects a cell.

Saturated Fats

*Contain no double bonds in their hydrocarbon tail
* solid
*Those that the general public consider detrimental ; cardiovascular problems are likely with diets that contain high quantaties of saturated fats

Unsaturated Fats

*One or more double bonds
*Liquid at room temperature

Proteins

*Most significant contributor to cellular function.
*Polymers of 20 molecules called amino acids
*Proteins are complex , consists of several structure types , and the largest of the biological molecules.
*Enzymes are particular types of proteins that act to catalyze different reactions or processes.
* Nearly all cellular function is catalyzed by some type of enzyme

Nucleic acids

Componets of the molecules of inheritance. DNA and RNA

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reations that occur in an organism. In a cell, reactions take place in a series of steps called metabolic pathways.

Catabolism

Phase of metabolsim that involves breaking down complex chemical susbtances into smaller ones; = decompostion reactions

Anabolism

Phases of metabolism that involves building complex chemical substances from smaller , simpler ones; = sysnthesis reactions

Prokaryotic cells

lack a defined nucleus and do not contain membrane-bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cells

Have a membrane-enclosed nucleus and a series of membrane-bound organelles that carry out the functions of the cell as directed by the nucleus.
*More complex of the two cell types

Cellular Reproduction

Cells reproduce by three different processes, all of which fall into two categories : sexual and asexual reproduction

Cellular Respiration

*Two Catabolic pathways that lead to cellular energy production. As a simple combustion reaction, cellular respiration produces far more energy than does its anaerobic counterpart, fermentation.

Sexual reproduction

the off spring originates from a single cell, yielding all cells produced to be identical.
* Two cells contribute genetic material to the daughter cells, resulting in greater vatriation.

In the hierarchic system of classification, what is the least inclusive.

Species

A molecule of water is bonded with another molecule of water by what type of bond?

Hydrogen

Selectively Permeable

Allows free passage of many lipid-soluble molecules but selectively controls crossing of ions or polar substances through transporter proteins

Passive transport

substances uses its own kinetic energy to move down concentration or electrochemical gradient across membrane until it reaches equilibrium (equal on both sides) does not require energy

Simple Diffusion

allows pasage of nonpolar substances

Facilitated Diffusion

allows pasage of larger and highly polar/ charged substances via transports proteins

Active Transport

Energy- requiring process in which transport proteins move solutes across membrane (up) its concetration gradient.

Ionic Bond

The force that binds a cation to an anion

Covalent Bond

Two atoms share electrons, generally in pairs, one from each atom.

Cell

The basic unit of life and the building block of tissues and organs.

Hydrogen Bond

a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom on one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom on another molecule, or between such atoms on different parts of the same molecule; responsible for the cohesion of water and coiling of protein and DNA molecules, for example

How do phospholipds function in cells?

They are integral components of the plasma membrane

Proteins are polymers of what?

Amino acids

Which of the biological molecules are considered the most significant contributor to cellular function?

proteins

Lipids are better known as fats, but what are they specifically

Fatty acids, Phospholipids,steroids

Polysaccharide

ploymer of simple sugars; glycogen, starch, cellulose

Atom

the basic building block of a molecule that contains a nucleus and orbits

Monosaccharides

a simple sugar, or sugar monomer, chiefly glucose, fructose, and galactose.

What protein catalyze different reactions or processes?

Enzyme

Which of the biological molecules are componets of the molecules inheritance?

Nucleic acid

Aerobic

organism or cells that require oxygen to susutain life

Anaerobic

Organism or cell can function in low concentrations of oxygen (micro- aerobic) and some organisms exsist where no oxygen is present

Ionic Bond

Force of attraction that holds ions having opposite charges together

Isotope

Different kinds of the same atom that vary in weight: for a given element, the number of protons remains the same, while the number of neutrons varies to make different isotopes

Scientific Method Data

results generated by conducting experimental tests

Scientific Method Experiment

Implementation of scientific materials and methods designed to test a hypothesis ( should include a control group and experimental group)

Scientific Method Conclusion

Statements based on analysis of test results that discuss evidence to support or reject the hypothesis

Scientific Method Hyposthesis

Potential testable explanation for a phenomenon, based on observations and prior knowledge and experience

Scientific Method Observation

Use of senses to notice and study a phenomenon

Molecule

a group of stoms bonded together

Scientific Theory

Widely accepted concepts based on extensive experimental evidence

Element

one type of atom