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IELTS (1_Reading)

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perceived

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vilified as

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conquerors

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romanticised as

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adventurers

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employed

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nation-building

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topic of some interest

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Norse or Norsemen

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are also known as

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greatly influenced

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blunder

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snub

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coming from

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origins

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obscure

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Scandinavian pirate

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refer to

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inlet

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modem-day

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doubts

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historical confusion

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Loosely speaking

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endured from

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late eighth

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mid-eleventh centuries

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sailed to

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storm coastal monasteries

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subsequently

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large swathes

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fell under Viking rule

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indeed

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several Viking kings

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sat on the English throne

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generally agreed

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Battle of Hastings

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Norman French

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invaded

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marks the end of the English Viking Age

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ended earlier

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Viking colonies...did not dissolve

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until around AD 1500

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territory Vikings

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is also in dispute

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their reach east and south

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uncertain

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plundered

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settled down

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traded with

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archaeological record

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has yet to verify that

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raided

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as far away as

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control and extent

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assimilated into local populations

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To some degree

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is defined by religion

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polytheists

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believing in many gods

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by the end of the age

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had permanently accepted

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a new monotheistic religious system

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transition from

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so-called

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pagan plunderers to

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civilised Christians

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is significant and is the view promulgated

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throughout much of recent history

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schoolchildren

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were taught that

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the Vikings accepted Christianity

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nasty heathens

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rampaged throughout Britain

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By contrast,

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today’s children

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visit museums

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Vikings are celebrated as merchants, pastoralists, and artists

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a unique worldview

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other interpretations

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constructed their own Viking ages

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nationalistic reasons

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were in crisis

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had been beaten in war

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ceded territory to what is now Germany

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had become independent from Sweden

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but was economically vulnerable

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sought to

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create a separate identity

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in the past as well as the present

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was adamant it was his forebears

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had colonised Iceland

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had relinquished Norway to the Norwegians and Finland to the Russians

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late nineteenth century

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was keen to

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boost its image with rich archaeological finds

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show the glory of its Viking past

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In addition to

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augmenting nationalism

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nineteenth-century thinkers

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were influenced by an Englishman

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described peoples and cultures in evolutionary terms

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similar to

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those of

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coined the phrase

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survival of the fittest

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includes the notion

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over time

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technological but also moral progress

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Viking heathens’ adoption

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an advantageous move

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compare cultures in the same way

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in this case,

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heathen Vikings and Christian Europeans

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were equally brutal

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Views of Vikings change

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according to

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forces affecting historians

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at the time of their research

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according to the materials they read

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much knowledge of Vikings

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comes from

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literature composed up to 300 years

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after the events they chronicle

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historians cal1 these sources ‘mere legends’

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written language

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carved on large stones

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as few of these survive

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reliable contemporary sources on Vikings