Frederic Sorrieu was a French artist who
in 1848 prepared a series of four prints
visualising his dream of a world made up
of ‘Democratic and Social Republics’.
The features of Frédéric Sorrieu's
paintings were:
 The people of Europe and America
marching in a long line are paying
homage to the Statue of Liberty.
This shows that they wanted and
appreciated the principles of liberty,
equality and fraternity.
 On the foreground of the image lie
the shattered symbols of
monarchical regimes signifying the
downfall of the monarchical and
absolutists regimes.
 In this image, people are grouped as
distinct nations identified by their
flags and national costumes. This
depict the rise of nation states in
Europe and America.

A Nation State refers to a
country with well-defined
delineated boundaries, resided by
people with a similar culture,
shared history and ethnic
character. It is also supposed to
have a government of its choice.
The people in a Nation State are
supposed to have unity, strength
and cooperation.

The French Revolution is regarded as one of the most important events in history. It not only gave a
huge setback to monarchy but also gave the first clear expression to the idea of ‘nationalism’. The
French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to the French citizens. The
Constitution in France came into existence and citizens were awarded with the rights of liberty and
equality.
The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices to create a sense of
collective identity amongst the French people. These were:
 The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) was introduced.

 The Estates General was renamed the ‘National Assembly’. Its members were elected by active
citizens (citizens who paid taxes to the government).
 The new French flag replaced the former royal standard.
 Nation now became supreme. Hymns were composed and oaths were taken on the name of the
nation. It was regarded as a ‘fatherland’.
 The administrative system was centralised, and uniform laws were formulated for all citizens.
 A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted, and internal custom duties and dues
were abolished.
 The French language was made the common language of the people residing in France.
 The revolutionaries declared that their next motive is to help other people of Europe to become
nations.
The French Revolution impacted the middle class including professionals and students in several
countries such as Switzerland, Holland, Italy and Belgium. They also wanted to throw off the
monarchies in their countries and become nations.

Napoleon – Child of the French Revolution
The rise of Napoleon marked the rise of monarchy in France. However, Napoleon implemented some
revolutionary ideas and principles in France. He did this by taking the following steps:
 He introduced the Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic
Code. This Code instituted the principle of equality of all people before
the law, right to property was established and all privileges enjoyed by
the people of high birth and class were abolished.
 This Code was also promulgated to other parts of Europe which were
controlled by France.
 In many European countries such as Switzerland, Germany, Dutch
Republic and Italy, he simplified the administrative machinery, ended
the feudal system and liberated the peasants from serfdom.
 In towns, restrictions imposed on guilds were removed, and transport
and communication systems were improved. Businessmen, small
industrialists and traders began to realise the importance and advantages of a uniform system of
laws.
 People of other European countries initially welcomed the French armies but later began to
oppose them because of increased taxation and censorship imposed on them.

The Beginning of Nationalism in Europe
During the mid-eighteenth century, there were no nation states in Europe. Italy, Germany and
Switzerland were not one nation but were divided into various kingdoms. Central and eastern Europe
was under absolute monarchies. Several factors led to the emergence of the idea of nationalism in
the later half the eighteenth century. Some of these were the rise of the middle class, liberalism
and the rise of a new conservatism after 1815 and its opposition by the people.

Rise of the new middle class: The aristocratic class in Europe was a dominant class, but it was
comprised of only few people. Most of the people in Europe were peasants. The Industrial
Revolution resulted in the emergence of the labour or working class. Many small industrialists,
businessmen and professionals who formed the middle class gained prominence. These classes
supported the abolition of aristocratic privileges, demanded equality and advocated the idea of
nationalism.
Liberalism: The middle class stood for ‘liberalism’. Liberalism in political terms stood for
equality, freedom, formation and working of government by consent. In the economic field,
liberalism advocated the freedom of markets and the abolition of unjust duties on the movement
of goods from one territory to the other. This led to the beginning of economic nationalism in
Europe which contributed to the rise of nationalism. The new commercial class argued for the
creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and
capital. Later, several measures were introduced. Some of these were
 In 1834, a customs union called ‘zollverein’ was formed at the initiative of Prussia. Several
German states joined this union
 The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty
to two.
 The introduction of railways created mobility leading to the national unification.
 The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility harnessing economic
interests to national unification.
We find that a wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments
growing at the time.
Rise of New Conservatism and its opposition by the people
After the defeat of Napoleon, there was a rise of new conservatism.

Conservatives
They were of the opinion that the traditional institutions of
state and society – like the monarchy, the Church, social
hierarchies, property and the family – should be preserved
Did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary
days but realised that modernisation could in fact
strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy

The Congress of Vienna was held in 1815 in which Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria
participated to draw up settlement for Europe. The Congress was hosted by the Austrian
Chancellor Duke Metternich. Some results of the Congress of Vienna were:
 Monarchy was restored in France and strengthened in Prussia, Belgium and Austria.
Autocratic governments were set up in these countries.
 A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in
future.
Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate dissent and imposed
censorship on those materials and articles in newspapers, books, plays and songs that reflected the
ideas of liberty and freedom.

These conservative ideas gave rise to liberal nationalists and revolutionaries. Liberals were opposed
to monarchial governments. They advocated liberty and freedom and the creation of nation states.
After 1815, many liberal nationalist went underground and established several secret societies.

The Age of Revolutions (1830-48)
Nationalism emerged not only as a result of wars and battles. Culture played an important role in
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creating the idea of the nation. Art, painting, poetry, stories and music played an important role in
strengthening the feeling of nationalism.
Romanticism was a cultural movement in which the artists romanticised human feelings and
emotions. This was done to create a common cultural past
as the basis of a nation. Stress was laid on vernacular
languages and folklore. This gave communities who were
living under the control of other powerful nations a
cultural identity. For example, the people of Poland who
were under Russian control defied the ban on speaking
Polish. This was a kind of struggle to overthrow the
Russian rule from their territory and to become an
independent nation. Similarly, German philosopher
Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German
culture was to be discovered among the common people –
‘das volk’.
The emphasis was laid on using vernacular language and
the collection of local folklore not only to discover an
ancient national spirit, but also to carry the message of
modern nationalists to illiterate people.

Hunger, Hardships and Revolts
The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. It was because:
 During the 1830s, there was a large-scale unemployment in Europe. In most of the European
countries, employment opportunities were less whereas job seekers were many.
 Cities had come to be extremely overcrowded. As a result, slums had started coming up as
more people migrated from the rural to urban areas.
 Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from the imports of cheap
machine-made goods from England where industrialisation was more advanced, especially in
textile production.
 Peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food prices or
a year of bad harvest led to widespread poverty in town and country

The Revolutions of the Liberals
The year 1848 was a year of revolts. These revolts were led by the educated middle class.
 In the revolution of February 1848, the French monarch was dethroned and the country
became a republic based on universal male suffrage (right to vote was given to all men).
 In other parts of Europe nation-states did not yet exist such as Germany, Italy and Poland.
The men and women of the liberal middle classes demanded constitutionalism with national
unification
 In Germany, people of educated middle class came together and decided to vote for an allGerman National Assembly.
A painting by a French painter Delacroix who
depicts an incident in which 20,000 Greeks were
said to have been killed by Turks on the island of
Chios. Through this painting, he was trying to
create sympathy for the Greeks.
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 On 18May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched to take their places in the Frankfurt
Parliament. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy
subjected to Parliamentary control.
 The Prussian monarch Friedrich Wilhelm IV rejected the constitution. The German Parliament
which resisted the demands of the workers and artisans lost their support. Later, the
parliament led by the educated middle class was forced to disband.
 At this time, women all over Europe campaigned for securing voting rights.

Unification of Germany
 The newly emerged middle class in Germany in 1848 tried to unite several German kingdoms
which were suppressed by monarchies and large landowners into one nation state governed by an
elected body.
 Prussia, a German kingdom, took the leadership in uniting various German states. Otto von
Bismarck, the Chief Minister of Prussia, aimed to achieve the goal of
unification with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy.
 Spread over seven years, the Prussian army with the help of the Austrian,
French and Danish armies fought three wars and successfully incorporated all
the small German kingdoms. This marked the process of completion of German
unification.
 In 1871, William I was declared as the emperor of Germany at the Palace of
Versailles. The process of the unification of Germany exhibited the power of
the Prussian state. Many new reforms were initiated in banking, currency,
administration and judiciary in Germany.

Unification of Italy
 Italy was also politically fragmented into various small states which were ruled by
monarchies.
 During the mid-nineteenth century, only the state of Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled
by the Italian monarchy. The northern states were under the Austrian monarchy,
Central Italy was under the control of the Pope and the states in the south were
under the control of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
 Giuseppe Mazzini was a revolutionary who actively supported the unification of the
Italian states. For achieving this aim, he formed a secret society called ‘Young
Italy’.
 The state of Sardinia-Piedmont took the responsibility of fulfilling this task after
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Otto von Bismarck
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the failed uprisings in 1831 and 1848. The king of Sardinia-Piedmont, Victor Emmanuel II, was
actively helped by his Chief Minister Cavour. Cavour led the process of the unification of Italy.
 In 1859, the state of Sardinia-Piedmont defeated the Austrians. In 1860, the Italian forces
helped by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his volunteers marched into southern Italy and unified it with
Italy.
 King Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as the king of united Italy. The complete unification
of Italy was achieved in 1871.
Great Britain – A Nation State
 The transformation of Great Britain i

Great Britain – A Nation State
 The transformation of Great Britain into a nation state was not a sudden process. There was no
one British nation before the eighteenth century.
 People residing in the British Isles were mainly English, Welsh, Scots and Irish. These ethnic
groups had distinct political and social traditions.
 As the English nation grew in wealth and power, it began to dominate the other islands.
 In 1688, the English Parliament seized power from the monarchy. The Parliament passed the Act
of Union, 1707, by which England and Scotland were unified resulting in the formation of the
‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’.
 The Parliament was dominated by the English, and the political and cultural identities of the
Scots were systematically suppressed. The Catholics in Scotland were brutally suppressed
whenever they wanted to regain their independence.
 Ireland was inhabited by the Protestants and the Catholics. The English supported the
Protestants and established their rule with their help and support. Catholics, who constituted a
majority in Ireland, revolted against the British on numerous occasions but were suppressed.
 Ireland forcibly became a part of Britain in 1801. The English language dominated. Both Scotland
and Ireland were subordinate to England.
The idea of a nation was expressed in various forms by artists and painters. Most of the nations
were portrayed as female figures. The female figure became an allegory of the nation. ‘Marianne’ in
France and ‘Germania’ in Germany became allegories of a nation.

Allegory
An allegory is an
abstract idea which is
expressed through a
person or a thing. It can
be literal or symbolic.
‘Germania’ was an
allegory of the
German nation

Nationalism and Imperialism
 Nationalism which is the feeling of love for one’s own nation became intense and narrow minded
in the mid-nineteenth century. Many nations became intolerant of each other and competed with
one another for the control of territories.
 Imperialism is territorial control of a region or a country by another country by using military
control.
 This feeling of nationalism became intense in the Balkan region. The Balkan region formerly
comprised the present-day territories of Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Croatia, Greece, BosniaHerzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. The people in these countries were called Slavs.
 The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire in the region made the situation very explosive in the
region as every state was jealous of one another and hoped to gain independence at the cost of
the other.
 One by one, the European nationalities in the Balkan broke away from the control of the
Ottoman Empire and declared independence.
 As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the
Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
 During this time, many powerful European nations such as England, France, Russia and Germany
competed to gain control in the Balkan region. This competition for gaining prominence in the
region finally led to the First World War in 1914.
 Later, several Asian and African countries which were colonised by the European nations began
to oppose imperial domination. Anti- imperial movements that began in colonies were nationalist in
nature as people were fighting to form independent nation states.