learning

A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.

associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

classical conditioning

A type of learning in which an organism comes to asso- ciate stimuli. A neural stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian conditioning.

behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychol- ogists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

unconditioned response (UCR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, natu- rally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that uncon- ditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned response (CR)

In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS).

conditioned stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical con- ditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not follow a conditioned stim- ulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extin- guished conditioned response.

generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stim- uli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish be- tween a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.

operant behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing con- sequences.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable conse- quences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable conse- quences become less likely.

operant chamber (Skinner box)

A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.

shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal.

reinforcer

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

primary reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

conditioned reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.

continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

fixed-ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

variable-ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

fixed-interval schedule

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

variable-interval schedule

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforce- ment that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

punishment

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

overjustification effect

The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.

intrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective.

extrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

observational learning

Learning by observing others.

modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

behavior modification

psychotherapy that seeks to extinguish or inhibit ab- normal or maladaptive behavior by reinforcing desired behavior and extinguishing undesired behavior

Garcia Effect

Named after researcher John Garcia, it is basically food aversion that occurs when people attribute illness to a particular food.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary respons- es in dogs, classical conditioning

John Watson

founder of behaviorism

Wolfgang Kohler

researcher who studied insight learning in chimps

Albert Bandura

Researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment

Edward Thorndike

Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in instrumental learning such as the law of effect. Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.

Positive Reinforcement

Favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior, response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something

Negative (-) Reinforcement

The removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior, response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant

Positive (+) Punishment

Presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows

Negative (-) Punishment

Occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs

Punishing Stimulus (Punishment)

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows