PSYC 370 (Test #2)
Dualism
stimulus and response
information processing
study cognitive mechanisms that could not be directly observed
draw it with their left hand not not name it verbally
frontal lobe
chemicals
electrical
It processes fine details of the location you are looking directly at
These different visual capabilities may depend on different regions of the brain
bottom-up
binocular disparity
template
view-based models
late selection models
tasks are well learned and practiced
divided attention
search time would stay the same no matter how many rectangles were added
In order to find the tilted red rectangle in this image, what kind of search would you have to utilize?
conjunction search
amnesia:
Severely impaired long-term memory capacities, typically due to trauma or brain damage.
anterograde amnesia:
A form of amnesia in which memories formed after the trauma of brain damage are lost.
consolidation:
The process of making memories durable and, in some cases, permanent.
context-dependent memory:
A memory benefit when the external conditions (such as location or background noise) match between encoding and retrieval.
elaborative rehearsal:
A technique for storing information in long-term memory that involves elaborating on the meaning of the information.
encoding specificity:
A principle in long-term memory retrieval in which a match in condition between encoding and retrieval facilitates recall.
episodic memory:
Memory of events that have happened directly to us that can be recalled in a sequence as they occurred, i.e., "mental time travel."
explicit (or declarative) memory:
Memory for all information that can be verbally reported: includes semantic and episodic memory.
familiarity effect:
A phenomenon in which people will tend to rate something that they have encountered before more favorably than something completely unfamiliar.
free-recall task:
A type of memory task in which the experimental subject must simply remember as many items as they can from a memorized list without and cues or prompts.
hippocampal replay:
A phenomenon in which sequences of brain activity in the hippocampus that occurred during behavioral activity are repeated or "replayed," in sequence, after the event. It has been proposed as a mechanism in systems consolidation.
implicit memory:
A form of long-term memory in which the individual does not have explicit awareness of knowing the information but where the information has indirect effects on behavior.
level of processing theory:
A theory of long-term memory encoding that holds that depth of meaning during processing determines how likely an item is to be recalled.
long-term potentiation (LTP):
A form of synaptic consolidation in which a receiving neuron becomes more likely to fire in response to the stimulation of a sending neuron.
maintenance rehearsal:
A technique for encoding information in long-term memory that involves simply repeating the information.
primacy effect:
A phenomenon in the serial position effect in which words at the beginning of the list are better remembered. It is attributed to long-term memory.
procedural memory:
A form of implicit memory consisting of knowledge of how to perform a task.
propaganda effect:
A phenomenon in which people will tend to rate statements that they have heard before as being more likely to be true than those they have not heard before.
recency effect:
A phenomenon in the serial position effect in which words at the end of the list are better remembered. It is attributed to short-term memory.
retrograde amnesia:
A form of amnesia in which memories formed before the trauma of brain damage are lost.
semantic memory:
A form of explicit/declarative memory in which the information is recalled as a set of facts without mental time travel.
serial position effect:
An effect in memory studies using recall of long words lists in which words at the beginning and end of the list are remembered better than those in the middle of the list.
spacing effect:
A benefit in long-term memory when information is repeated over spaced out intervals.
state-dependent memory:
A memory benefit when the internal conditions (such as mood) match between encoding and retrieval.
synaptic consolidation:
Changes at the synapses between neurons that lead to long-term storage of memories.
systems consolidation:
A process of making long-term memories more durable based on connections between cortical areas; thought to be orchestrated by the hippocampus.
testing effect:
A long-term memory benefit that occurs when people retrieve information on their own rather than observing it passively.
transfer-appropriate processing:
An account for which information is remembered in long-term memory that emphasizes a match in form between when the information is initially encoded and when it is retrieved.
transfer learning:
A technique used in training neural networks in which the weights of an ANN trained on one task are re-used in a different network in order to learn a different task.
amygdala:
A brain structure deep within the temporal lobes that is involved in the processing of emotion.
attentional blink:
A phenomenon in which people often miss a repeated stimulus when it is presented quickly in a sequence.
autobiographical knowledge base:
The system responsible for retaining information on the past, present and potential future of the self.
autobiographical memory (AM):
A broad category of memories pertaining to episodes and facts about ourselves and our lives.
childhood amnesia:
The phenomenon to describe that most adults have very few, if any, episodic memories from before roughly age two to four.
coherence:
A property of autobiographical memory in which memories for events or facts are consistent with one another and beliefs about the self.
critical lure:
A word item in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm that is likely to be falsely remembered.
Deep-Q-Learning:
A technique used in RL that uses a neural network that predicts what rewards will result from certain actions in a given situation.
Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM):
An experimental paradigm in which words that are likely to belong to a list are actually are not included in the list during encoding with the goal of determining whether people falsely remember their inclusion.
event-specific knowledge:
The shortest tier of the autobiographical knowledge base consisting of detailed memories of particular times, places, and actions, typically accompanied by the ability to "relive" the events unfolding over time.
flashbulb memories:
Memory for highly public emotionally charged events, characterized by strong confidence in memory of details.
general events:
A tier in the autobiographical knowledge base consisting of specific sequences of events that are all somehow related.
highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM):
A condition in which people can recall event-specific details of ordinary events at much higher levels of detail compared with the typical population.
lifetime periods:
The broadest tier of the autobiographical knowledge base consists of distinguishable portions of our lives that have a specific beginning and ending in time.
misinformation effect:
A phenomenon in which information presented to a subject after encoding of an episode can alter their memory of that episode.
neurogenesis:
The generation of new neurons after birth.
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD):
A disorder in which unwanted intrusive memories replay themselves.
Reconsolidation
A mechanism in which information that has previously been stored in long-term memory is actively recalled, leading it it be stored again in memory.
reinforcement learning (RL)
A type of machine learning that consists of an automated agent that makes behavioral decisions and receives feedback in the form of positive or negative rewards.
reminiscence bump
An increase in remembered events from mid-adolescence through early adulthood is typically found when people recall their lives in middle age.
replay memory
A training technique used in artificial reinforcement learning in which states, actions, and rewards are sampled from previous gameplay in order to update the network's predictive model.
self-memory system
A proposed organizational structure for autobiographical memory consists of the autobiographical knowledge base and the working self.
source monitoring
The attribution of when or where some remembered information was first encountered.
working self
A proposed mechanism in autobiographical memory that serves to access and organize memories based on a set of goals.
Category
a set of items that are perceptually, biologically, or functionally similar A group of items that are grouped together because they are similar in some way.
Exemplars
individual items in a category (different chairs)
Concept
a mental representation of objects, ideas or events (category)
Classical view of categorization
categories are defined by sets of features that are both necessary and sufficient for category membership
Prototype theory of categorization
we categorize items using characteristics features to compare to a prototype stored in memory
Prototype
the most typical member of the category
mental average of all category member
Characteristic features
features that are likely to belong to a category members but are not required for the category membership
Family resemblance
all category members share at least one feature with another category, but few features are shared between all members
Typicality effects
behavior directed differently toward items compared to atypical ones
lexical decision task
An experimental task in which participants must decide whether a string of letters is a word or a nonword as fast as possible.
Subordinate categories
informative, but not distinctive below the basic level
superordinate category level
The category level is above the basic level. This level is less informative than the basic level but more distinctive.
Exemplar theory of categorization
process we store in memory
Knowledge-based approach to categorization
we rely on our broad knowledge base to explain the reasons for category membership
Psychological essentialism
the idea is that all category members possess a fundamental essence that is unique to that category and determines membership
Schemata (plural of schema)
our organized knowledge based on a particular topic
Schema
A cognitive structure represents a person's knowledge about an item or situation.
method of repeated reproduction
To investigate schemata and the role of knowledge on memory, Bartlett devised
Semantic Network Models
Collins and Quillian (1969) suggested knowledge is stored as concepts within a network of interconnected units called ‘nodes’
Spreading activation model of semantic memory
Nodes are connected via semantic relatedness, rather than using a hierarchical structure
Encoding
Processes used to store information in memory
Storage
Processes used to maintain information in memory
Free recall
Recall all the words you can from the list you saw previously
Cued recall
Recall everything you can that is associated with the Civil War
Serial recall
Recall the names of all previous presidents in the order they were eclectic Need to recall order as well as item name
Explicit memory tasks
Involves conscious recollection Participant knows they are trying to retrieve information from their memory
Implicit memory tasks
Require participants to complete a task The completion of the task indirectly indicates memory
articulatory suppression:
A technique used in verbal memory experiments, designed to block rehearsal, in which the participant repeats a task-irrelevant utterance out loud while trying to maintain other verbal items in memory.
capacity:
A measure of how much information a memory system can hold.
central executive:
A component of the working memory model that determines what information makes it into memory and toggles between the visual and auditory memory stores.
chunk:
Any combination of letters, numbers, or sounds that constitute a meaningful whole. It is the proposed unit for measuring capacity in STM.
delayed-match-to-sample task:
A task designed to test visual short-term memory. Participants are shown an image, followed by a delay, and then a second image and are tasked with determining whether the two images are the same or different.
duration:
A measure of how long information can be held in memory
echoic memory:
An auditory form of sensory memory in which much of the auditory input can be stored.
encoding:
Initial processing of information by the nervous system.
episodic buffer:
A component proposed as a revision to the original working memory model that can combine information from across different sources including the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad as well as long-term memory.
iconic memory:
The visual form of sensory memory in which much of the visual input can be stored for a short period.
long-term memory:
The final stage in the modal model of memory which serves as cold storage of information for retrieval into short-term memory.
maintenance rehearsal:
The mental repetition of information in short-term memory that allows information to be regenerated in order to prolong its duration.
mnemonist:
People who are capable of memorizing long strings of numbers or letters.
modal model:
An influential model of human memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin that posited
three distinct memory stores:
sensory, short-term, and long-term.
persistence of vision:
The retention of an image of an object or event for a brief period after it is no longer present.
phonological loop:
The auditory component of the working memory model in which information can be repeated/rehearsed.
proactive interference:
A phenomenon in which information encoded at an earlier point in time interferes with the ability to recall information encoded at a later time.
Retrieval:
Access and use of stored information by the nervous system
retroactive interference:
A phenomenon in which information encoded at a later point in time interferes with the ability to recall information encoded at an earlier time.
sensory memory:
The first stage in the modal model of memory, holding information before it can be processed. It has a high capacity and short duration.
short-term memory:
The second stage of the modal model of memory which serves to hold processed information for rehearsal or to produce a behavior.
storage:
The retention of information in the nervous system beyond initial processing.
visuo-spatial sketchpad:
The visual component of the working memory model that serves to hold and manipulate visual information.