front 1 What benefits do microorganisms provide? | back 1 Decompose organic wastes Producers in the ecosystem by photosynthesis Produce industrial chemicals (ethyl alcohol and acetone) Produce fermented foods such as vinegar, cheese and bread Food preservation, flavor, biochemical recycling, vitamins |
front 2 What harm do microorganisms cause? | back 2 Disease Food blights Spoilage |
front 3 What is genus? | back 3 The first name in the scientific bi-nomenclature that is capitalized. |
front 4 What is specific epithet (species)? | back 4 The second name in the scientific bi-nomenclature that is not capitalized. |
front 5 Who established the system of scientific nomenclature? | back 5 Carolus Linnaeus in 1735 |
front 6 What does a scientific name tell us about the organism for which it is named? | back 6 It may be descriptive of the organism or it may honor a scientist. |
front 7 What are the main groups of microorganisms? | back 7 Prokayotes Viruses Eukaryotes |
front 8 Who identified the 3 domains of microorganisms and when? | back 8 Carl Woese in 1978 |
front 9 By what method are microorganisms classified in the 3 domains? | back 9 It is based on ribosome RNA (protein factory). |
front 10 What are the characteristics of bacteria? | back 10 Prokaryotes Peptidoglycan cell walls Binary fission Use organic chemicals or photosynthesis for energy |
front 11 What are the characteristics of archaea? | back 11 Prokaryotic Lack peptidoglycan Live in extreme environments Include: methanogens, extreme halophiles, extreme thermophiles |
front 12 What are the characteristics of fungi? | back 12 Eukaryotes Chitin cell walls Use organic chemicals for energy Includes molds, mushrooms and yeast |
front 13 What is mycelia? | back 13 Multiple hyphae |
front 14 What is hyphae? | back 14 The filaments that make up mycelia. |
front 15 Which type(s) of fungi have mycelia? | back 15 Molds and mushrooms |
front 16 What are the characteristics of protozoa? | back 16 Eukaryotes Absorb or ingest organic chemicals May be motile via pseudopods, cilia, or flagella |
front 17 What are the characteristics of algae? | back 17 Eukaryotes Cellulose cell walls Use photosynthesis for energy Produce molecular oxygen and organic compounds |
front 18 What are the characteristics of viruses? | back 18 Acellular Consist of DNA or RNA core Core is surrounded by a protein coat Coal may be enclosed in a lipid envelope Are replicated only when they are in a living host cell |
front 19 What is classified under domain eukarya? | back 19 Protists Fungi Plants Animals |
front 20 Who described "little boxes" or "cells" and is credited with the beginning of the cell theory of life (all living things are composed of cells)? | back 20 Robert Hooke in 1665 |
front 21 Who was the first to observe live mircroorganisms 'animalcules" and is called the "Father of Microbiology"? | back 21 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek in 1673 |
front 22 Who heated broth in open flasks with s-shaped necks disproving the spontaneous generation theory? | back 22 Louis Pasteur in 1861 |
front 23 What is biogenesis? | back 23 All cells arise only from preexisting cells. |
front 24 What is aseptic technique? | back 24 The most important techniques that all microbiologists use. The methods that prevent contamination by unwanted microorganisms. |
front 25 What is Pasteurization? | back 25 Heating which kills pathogens but does not damage the food (milk). This application of a high heat for a short time. |
front 26 What is the difference between sterilization and Pasteurization? | back 26 Sterilization kills the pathogen and the host; Pasteurization only kills the pathogen. |
front 27 Who showed that a silkworm disease was caused by a fungus? | back 27 Agostini Bassi in 1835 |
front 28 Who believed that another silkworm disease was caused by a protozoan? | back 28 Louis Pasteur in 1865 |
front 29 Who advocated handwashing to prevent transmission of puerperal fever from one OB patient to another? | back 29 Ignaz Semmelwise in 1840s |
front 30 Who used a chemical disinfectant to prevent surgical wound infections after looking at Pasteur's work showing microbes are in the air, can spoil food and cause animal disease? | back 30 Joseph Lister in 1860s |
front 31 Who provided proof that a bacterium causes anthrax and provided the experimental steps used to prove that a specific microbe causes a specific disease? | back 31 Robert Koch in 1876 |
front 32 What are Koch's postulates? | back 32 Pathogen must be present in all cases of disease Pathogen must be isolated and grown in lab in pure culture Pathogen from pure cultures must cause disease when inoculated into healthy, susceptible lab animals Same pathogen must be isolated from the diseased lab animal |
front 33 Why are Koch's postulates used? | back 33 To look for the cause of a specific disease |
front 34 Who inoculated a person with cowpox virus and as a result, the person was protected from smallpox. | back 34 Edward Jenner in 1796 |
front 35 What is the protection from a disease called? | back 35 Immunity |
front 36 Who discovered the first antibiotic? | back 36 Alexander Fleming in 1928 |
front 37 What is the name of the first antibiotic? | back 37 Penicillin - made from the fungus Penicillium |
front 38 When was penicillin tested clinically and mass produced? | back 38 In the 1940s |
front 39 What is total magnification? | back 39 Objective lens x ocular lens |
front 40 What is resolution? | back 40 The ability of the lenses to distinguish two points. |
front 41 In a microscope, what is either reflected, refracted or absorbed? | back 41 Light |
front 42 Why is immersion oil used? | back 42 To keep light from bending |
front 43 What kind of microscope has only one lens? | back 43 A simple microscope |
front 44 In which type of microscope is the image magnified by the objective lens and then again by the ocular lens? | back 44 A compound microscope |
front 45 What type of microscope shows a dark image against a brighter background? | back 45 A Bright-field mircroscope |
front 46 True or false. In the bright field microscope, light reflected off the specimen does not enter the objective lens. | back 46 True |
front 47 Which concept accentuates diffraction of the light that passes through a specimen and where direct and reflected light rays are combined at the eye? | back 47 Phase-Contrast Microscopy |
front 48 Which concept uses UV light and cells may be stained with fluorescent dyes (fluorochromes)? | back 48 Fluorescence Microscopy |
front 49 Where is fluorescence microscopy used regularly? | back 49 In the hospital |
front 50 Using the fluorescent microscopy, how can you tell if a Syphilis test is positive or negative? | back 50 Green means positive and yellow means negative |
front 51 What does an electron microscope use for illumination? | back 51 Electrons because they have shorter waves lengths and allow for greater resolution. |
front 52 What are the two types of electron microscopes? | back 52 TEM (Transmission Electron Microscope) and SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) |
front 53 Which electron microscope displays an image produced by electrons which are emitted from the surface of the object creating a 3 dimensional structure? | back 53 Scanning Electron Microscope |
front 54 Which electron microscope have electrons that pass through a thin section of the specimen? | back 54 Transmission Electron Microscope |
front 55 Which electron microscope can view specimens that have been stained with heavy metal salts and show a two dimensional structure? | back 55 Transmission Electron Microscope |
front 56 What is fixation? | back 56 A process by which internal and external structures of a cell are preserved. |
front 57 What is heat fixation? | back 57 Fix an air-dried thin film (smear) by passing through a flame |
front 58 Why is fixation used? | back 58 To attach the microbes to the slide and to kill the microbes |
front 59 In an ionic stain, basic dyes have a chromophore that is a ______. | back 59 Cation |
front 60 In an ionic stain, acid dyes have a chromophore that is an _________. | back 60 Anion |
front 61 When only one staining agent is used, this type of staining is called ________. | back 61 Simple staining |
front 62 How do differential stains work? | back 62 It divides bacteria into separate groups based on staining properties. |
front 63 What type of stain traps crystal violet-iodine complex due to a thick layer of peptidoglycan cell wall? | back 63 Gram positive |
front 64 When lipids in the cell wall are dissolved by the ethanol, allowing crystal violet-iodine complex to escape, what type of stain does it depict? | back 64 Gram negative |
front 65 What is the most important staining procedure and who is it named for? | back 65 Gram stain, Dr. Christian Gram in 1884 |
front 66 In the Gram Stain, which is the primary stain? | back 66 Crystal violet |
front 67 In the Gram Stain, which is the counterstain? | back 67 Safranin |
front 68 In the Gram Stain, which is the mordant? | back 68 Iodine |
front 69 In the Gram Stain, which is the decolorizing agent? | back 69 Alcohol-acetone |
front 70 Name the steps in the Gram Stain | back 70 1. Crystal Violet - 1 minute 2. water 3. Iodine - 1 minute 4.Alcohol - 10-20 secs 5.water 6.Safranin - 1 minute 7.water 8.Dry lens - DO NOT RUB! |
front 71 In Gram+, what is the color stain after the mordant is applied? | back 71 Purple |
front 72 In Gram-, what is the color stain after the counterstain is applied? | back 72 Red |
front 73 Why is an acid-fast stain used? | back 73 To stain Mycobacterium, which have high mycolic acid content (waxy) |
front 74 What is the counterstain used in acid-fast staining? | back 74 Methylene blue |
front 75 What are cells called that retain a basic stain in the presence of acid-alcohol? | back 75 Acid-fast |
front 76 What is the evolutionary history of a group of organisms? | back 76 Phylogenesis |
front 77 In the Three-Domain system, what does bacteria have that the other domains do not have? | back 77 Mitochondria and chloroplast |
front 78 What does the fossil record tell us? | back 78 Eukaryotic relationships |
front 79 What does rRNA sequencing tell us? | back 79 Prokaryotic relationships |
front 80 In Eukarya domain, which type is multicellular but has no cell wall and is chemoheterotrophid? | back 80 Animalia |
front 81 Which Eukarya is multicelluar but with a cellulose wall and usually phototutotrophic | back 81 Plantae |
front 82 Which kingdom is unicellular or multicellular; has chitin cell walls and may develop from spores or hyphal fragments? | back 82 Fungi |
front 83 Which kingdom is considered the "catch all" for eukaryotic organisms that don't fit in any other kingdom? | back 83 Protista |
front 84 What is a clone? | back 84 When a population of cells are derived from a single cell |
front 85 What characteristics do all cells have in common? | back 85 Basic shape - spherical, cubical, cylindrical Internal content - cytoplasm, surrounded by a membrane DNA Chromosome(s), ribosomes, metabolic capabilities |
front 86 What are the two basic cell types? | back 86 Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic |
front 87 What are the characteristics of a prokaryote? | back 87 One circular chromosome, not in a membrane No histones No organelles Peptidoglycan cell walls Binary fission |
front 88 What are the characteristics of a eukaryote? | back 88 Paired chromosomes, in a nuclear membrane Histones Organelles Polysaccharide cell walls Mitotic spindle |
front 89 What are the basic shapes of a cell? | back 89 Spherical, cubical and cylindrical |
front 90 What are the arrangements of cells? | back 90 Pairs: diplococci. diplobacilli Clusters: staphylococci Chains: streptococci, streptobacilli |
front 91 What are the unusual shapes of cells? | back 91 Star-shaped (Stella) Square (Haloarcula) |
front 92 Are most bacteria monomorphic or pleomorphic? | back 92 Monomorphic, only a few are pleomorphic |
front 93 What is a glycocalyx? | back 93 A capsule, slime layer, or extracellular polysaccharide) is a gelatinous polysaccharide and or polypeptide covering Outside cell wall Usually sticky A capsule is neatly organized A slime layer is unorganized and loose Extracellular polysaccharide allows cell to attach |
front 94 What does the glycocalyx (capsules) do? | back 94 Prevent pahgocytosis Enable adherence to surfaces Prevent desiccation (dryness) |
front 95 Which are more likely pathogen, much more virulent and more stable to create more bacteria? | back 95 Cells with capsules or glycocalyx |
front 96 Explain the movement of motile cells? | back 96 Clockwise - toward food Counterclockwise - away from toxins |
front 97 What is fimbriae? | back 97 Fine, proteinaceous, hair-like bristles from the cell surface Function in adhesion to other cells and surfaces |
front 98 What are pili? | back 98 Pili are used to transfer DNA from one cell to another called conjugation Found only in Gram negative cells |
front 99 What is conjugation? | back 99 The transferring of DNA via pili |
front 100 What is the function of the cell wall? | back 100 Prevents osmotic lysis Made of peptidoglycan (in bacteria) Give shape to bacteria Protection of the cell |
front 101 What is peptidoglycan? | back 101 Polymer of disaccharide (NAG) & (NAM) Linked by polypeptides |
front 102 Describe Gram-positive cell wall | back 102 Thick peptidoglycan Teichoic acids: Lipoteichoic acid links to plasma membrane; Wall teichoic acid links to peptidoglycan In acid-fast cells, contains mycolic acid May regulate movement of cations Polysaccharides provide antigenic variation |
front 103 Describe the Gram-negative cell wall | back 103 Thin peptidoglycan No teichoic acids Outer membrane |
front 104 In which type of cell wall can the glycin bridge be found? | back 104 Gram-Positive cell walls |
front 105 Describe the Gram-Negative Outer Membrane | back 105 Lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins, phospholipids Forms the periplasm between the outer membrane and the plasma membrane Protection from phagocytes, complement, antibiotics O polysaccharide antigen Lipid A is an endotoxin Porins (proteins) form channels through membrane |
front 106 What is endotoxin? | back 106 Part of the cell structure; happens once the cell dies |
front 107 What is exotoxin? | back 107 Excretes some toxin, the bacteria must be alive |
front 108 What is the Gram Stain Mechanism? | back 108 Crystal violet-iodine crystals form in cell Gram-positive - Alcohol dehydrates peptidoglycan; CV-I crystals do not leave Gram-negative - Alcohol dissolves outer membrane and leaves holes in peptidoglycan; CV-I washes out |
front 109 What is the periplasmic space? | back 109 The space between peptidoglycan and cell membrane in Gram+ (also outer membrane in G-) |
front 110 What are two examples of atypical cell walls? | back 110 Mycoplasmas (cause walking pneumonia) - lack cell walls; sterols in plasma membrane Archaea - wall-less or walls of pseudomurein (lack NAM and D amino acids) |
front 111 What is Gram+ treated with lysosome and have their cell wall entirely removed? | back 111 Protoplasts |
front 112 What is Gram- treated with lysosome and have their cell wall only partially removed? | back 112 Spheroplasts |
front 113 What digests disaccharide in peptidoglycan? | back 113 Lysosome |
front 114 Where can lysosome be found? | back 114 It is in every fluid in the body. |
front 115 What inhibits peptide bridges from forming in peptidoglycan? | back 115 Penicillin |
front 116 What do all live cells have and are only differentiated by protein? | back 116 Phospholipid bilayer |
front 117 What does selective permeability mean? | back 117 Allows passage of some molecules ( H2O, gas (O2, CO2), small molecules) |
front 118 What are the two types of movement across membranes? | back 118 Simple diffusion and Facilitative diffusion |
front 119 What is simple diffusion? | back 119 Movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration |
front 120 What is facilitative diffusion? | back 120 Solute combines with a transporter protein in the membrane; does not need ATP; moving from higher concentration to lower concentration |
front 121 What type of solution has no net movement of water? | back 121 Isotonic |
front 122 What type of solution causes water to move into the cell and may cause the cell to burst if the wall is weak or damaged? | back 122 Hypotonic (osmotic lysis) |
front 123 What type of solution causes water to move out of the cell, causing its cytoplasm to shrink? | back 123 Hypertonic (plasmolysis) |
front 124 What does active transport of substances require? | back 124 A transporter protein and ATP |
front 125 What does group translocation of substances require? | back 125 A transporter protein and PEP |
front 126 50s and 30s subunits makes what type of rbosome? | back 126 70s which is prokaryotic |
front 127 50s and 40s subunits makes what type of ribosome? | back 127 80s which is eukaryotic |
front 128 What are endospores? | back 128 Resting cells Resistant to desiccation, heat, chemicals Bacillus, Clostridium |
front 129 What is sporulation? | back 129 Endospore formation |
front 130 What is germination? | back 130 Return to the vegetative state |
front 131 What is phagocytosis? | back 131 Eating solids; cell eating |
front 132 What is pinocytosis? | back 132 Send toxin inside cell to kill it |
front 133 What do sterols make? | back 133 Antibiotics |
front 134 What is endocytosis? | back 134 Phagocytosis: Pseudopods extend and engulf particles Pinocytosis: Membrane folds inward bringing in fluid and dissolved substance |
front 135 What is cytoskeleton? | back 135 Microfilabments, intermediate filaments, microtubules Gives shape to non-cell wall; movement |
front 136 What is the sum of all chemical reactions within the cell? | back 136 Metabolism |
front 137 What is the breakdown of complex organic molecules into simpler ones; energy is released? | back 137 Catabolism |
front 138 What is the building of complex organic molecules from simpler ones; energy is used? | back 138 Anabolism |
front 139 What is an enzyme? | back 139 A type of protein which catalyzes reactions in the cell by lowering the activation energy. |
front 140 What is a substrate? | back 140 The compound being acted upon by the enzyme. |
front 141 What is turnover number? | back 141 The maximum number of substrate molecules an enzyme can convert to product each second. |
front 142 Enzymes are | back 142 All proteins except RNAse Catalysts Specific to a substrate Can have many turnovers (generally 1- 10,000 molecules per second) Has an active site that is shaped to match a specific substrate |
front 143 Co-factors are | back 143 Mainly metal ions |
front 144 Summarize the enzymatice action | back 144 1. Substrate binds to active site on the surface of the enzyme 2. Temporary intermediate complex forms - enzyme-substrate complex 3. Substrate transformed (other molecule added, molecule rearranged, bond broken, etc.) 4. Transformed substrate (product or products) no longer conform to the active site, is released. 5. Unchanged enzyme is ready to react with more substrate molecules |
front 145 Which factors influence enzymes? | back 145 Temperature - Low, high, (optimum minimum, maximum) pH - optimum, effects on amino acids Substrate concentration - saturation |
front 146 Which reaction is where one substrate loses electrons (oxidation) and the other gains elctrons (reduction)? | back 146 Oxidation-reduction reactions |
front 147 Which reaction often includes the transfer of both the electron and the accompanying proton (hydrogen atom)? | back 147 Dehydrogenation reactions |
front 148 What is oxidation? | back 148 The removal of electrons |
front 149 What is reduction? | back 149 The gain of electrons |
front 150 What is an oxidation reaction paired with a reduction reaction? | back 150 Redox reaction |
front 151 True or False: Oxidation and reduction are always together in a reaction. | back 151 True |
front 152 What is the removal and addition of electrons to molecules? | back 152 Oxidation-Reduction |
front 153 What is phosphorylation? | back 153 Adding a phosphate group - storing energy |
front 154 What is dephosphorylation? | back 154 Removing a phosphate group - releasing energy |
front 155 What is generated by the phosphorylation of ADP? | back 155 ATP |
front 156 What is losing or gaining a phosphate? | back 156 Energy |
front 157 What does the oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid yield? | back 157 ATP and NADH |
front 158 What is glycolysis? | back 158 The oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid |
front 159 In respiration, how many ATP are gained? | back 159 36-38 ATP |
front 160 In fermentation, how many ATP are gained? | back 160 2 ATP |
front 161 What is fermentation? | back 161 The partial oxidation of glucose in the absence of oxygen where the final electron acceptor is an organic molecule. |
front 162 What is respiration? | back 162 The process by which molecules are oxidized and the final electron acceptor is an inorganic molecule. |
front 163 In aerobic respiration, the final electron acceptor is | back 163 Molecular oxygen |
front 164 In anaerobic respiration, the final electron acceptor is | back 164 Inorganic molecule other than oxygen (or rarely, an organic molecule) |
front 165 What is chemiosmosis? | back 165 The generation of ATP using a proton gradient; yield of ATP high |
front 166 What is the electron transport chain? | back 166 A series of carrier molecules located in a membrane which are capable of oxidation and reduction. Energy of electrons used to establish a proton gradient |
front 167 What is lipid catabolism? | back 167 The breakdown of lipids (uses enzyme CoA); some components enter the Krebs cycle |
front 168 What is protein catabolism? | back 168 Some can also enter the Krebs cycle |
front 169 What is carbohydrate catabolism? | back 169 Energy produced from complete oxidation of one glucose using aerobic respiration. |