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Bacteria

front 1

What are some of the similarities between eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

back 1

-DNA
-Biochemical Reactions- used for growth and energy conversions
-Response to Stimuli
-Reproduce to produce offspring
-Adapt from one generation to the next
-Interact w/ other organisms in environment

front 2

Why is homeostasis important?

back 2

It maintains a stable internal environment.

front 3

What are biofilms?

back 3

They interact through a multicellular association.

front 4

_____ is a chemical communication and cooperation between cells.

back 4

Quorum sensing

front 5

What organizational patterns do eukaryotic and bacterial cells share?

back 5

Genetic organization with DNA in chromosomes, compartmentation with cell membranes, metabolic organization in the cytoplasm, protein synthesis at ribosomes

front 6

Similar organizational patterns: Cell Theory

back 6

The cell is the fundamental unit of life.

front 7

Similar organizational patterns: Hereditary

back 7

Information is organized in chromosomes.

front 8

Similar organizational patterns: Cytoplasm

back 8

Cytoplasm is surrounded by a cell membrane which selectively allows substances in or out of the cell.

front 9

Similar organizational patterns: Metabolism

back 9

The chemical reactions that occur in the cell.

front 10

Similar organizational patterns: Protein synthesis

back 10

Occurs at the ribosome.

front 11

Structural Differences: Membrane bound organelles Eukaryotes have membrane-enclosed organelles

back 11

Eukaryotes have membrane-enclosed organelles. Some bacteria have micro compartments surrounded by protein.

front 12

Structural Differences: Protein/Lipid Transport

back 12

Eukaryotes: Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
Prokaryotes: Cytoplasm

front 13

Structural Difference: Mitochondria

back 13

Eukaryotes: mitochondria perform cellular respiration in eukaryotes, while prokaryotes use the cytoplasm and cell membrane.
*ETS* is performed in the cell membrane (in proks) and everything else is in the cytoplasm.

front 14

Structural Difference: Photosynthesis

back 14

Both eukaryotes and prokaryotes can perform photosynthesis.

front 15

Structural Difference: Cytoskeleton

back 15

The eukaryotic cytoskeleton gives the cell structure and transports materials within the cell. **What happens in the prokaryotic?**

front 16

Structural Similarity: Flagella

back 16

Both eukaryotes and prokaryotes use flagella for motility, though the flagella differ structurally and functionally in the two groups.
Proks=Bacterial flagella
Euks=Eukaryotic flagella or cilia

front 17

Structural Similarity: Cell wall

back 17

Many prokaryotes and eukaryotes have a cell wall to help maintain water balance by osmosis.

front 18

Comparing: Genetic Organization

back 18

Prokaryotic: Circular DNA chromosomes
Eukaryotic: Linear DNA chromosomes

front 19

Comparing: Cell Compartmentation

back 19

Prok's and Euk's= cell membrane

front 20

Comparing: Metabolic organization

back 20

Prok's and Euk's= Cytoplasm

front 21

Comparing: Protein Synthesis

back 21

Prok's and Euk's= Ribosomes

front 22

Comparing: Protein/Lipid Transport

back 22

Prok's= Cytoplasm
Euk's=Endomembrane System

front 23

Comparing: Energy Metabolism

back 23

Prok's= Cell membrane
Euk's= Mitochondria and chloroplasts

front 24

Comparing: Cell structure and transport

back 24

Prok's= Thin protein filaments in cytoplasm
Euk's=Protein tubules and filaments in cytoplasm

front 25

Comparing: Water Balance

back 25

Prok's and Euk's= cell wall

front 26

_______ us the science of classification, arranging related organisms into categories.

back 26

Taxonomy

front 27

Classification uses a hierarchal system. What is it?

back 27

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
Dr. King Philip Can Order Family Good Stuff

front 28

_____ gives scientific names to organisms.

back 28

Nomenclature

front 29

In the mid-1700's, who published Systema Naturae, establishing a uniform system for naming organisms?

back 29

Carolus Linnaeus

front 30

Each scientific name includes two words, the ____ and the ____ ____ that together make up the _____ name.

back 30

genus (capital); specific epithet (lower case); species (italics, or underlined)

front 31

Trying to make sense of taxonomic relationships

back 31

Kingdoms and domains

front 32

In 1886, who coined the term "protists" for all microorganisms.

back 32

Ernst H. Haeckel

front 33

In 1959, who developed the five kingdom system, giving bacteria their own kingdom? Name the five kingdoms.

back 33

Robert H. Whittaker: Plantae, Animalia, Protista, Fungi, Bacteria

front 34

The three domain system was proposed by ____ ____, based on data from ____ ____ ___. What are the three domains?

back 34

Carl Woese; ribosomal RNA sequences.
Three domains include: bacteria, eukarya, and archaea

The three-domain system places the prokaryotes in separate lineages.

front 35

Most microbial agents are in the micrometer size range. What is the length of most bacterial and archaeal cells?

back 35

1-5 micrometers (um)

front 36

Light Microscopy-what is it used for, how many lenses does it have, and what are they?

back 36

is used to observe most microorganisms.
-Visible light passes through multiple lenses and through the specimen.
-Light microscopes usually have at least 3 lenses: low power, high power, and oil-immersion
-The lens system must have high resolving power to see the specimen clearly.
*only under oil can you see bacteria clearly but you have to stain them as well.

front 37

What is the simple stain technique?

back 37

It involves flooding a prepared specimen with basic dye to provide contrast.

front 38

Describe the Gram stain technique. (Differential Stain)

back 38

Cells are stained with crystal violet and Gram's iodine solution and washed with a decolorizer.
-Safranin is applied as a counter stain.
-Gram-positive bacteria retain the crystal violet, whereas gram-negative bacteria do not (turn orange-red).

front 39

Describe Acid-fast technique. (Differential Stain)

back 39

Mycobacteria can be stained with carbol-fuchsin in acid-fast technique. The cells turn red. Example: TB.

front 40

What are the 3 criteria used to classify organisms into 5 kingdoms?

back 40

1. The type of cell: (only 2 types Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell)
2. Number of cells: (unicellular- kingdom protista- unicellular eukaryotes) and multicellular-everything else.
3. Type of nutrition: Autotrophic nutrition (photosynthesis=kingdom Plantae) everything else is a heterotroph (other feeders) these fall into two categories: ingestive (kingdom Animalia) and absorptive (kingdom Fungi)

front 41

Describe Endospore Stain.

back 41

used to confirm: Clostridium bacillus if it's present then it turns aqua/green color if it's absent then it turns pink (all vegetative cells).

front 42

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Staphylococcus aureus

back 42

Gram +, coccus, staphylococcus (grape like), yellow

front 43

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Bacillus subtilis

back 43

Gram +, bacillus, streptobacillus

front 44

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Clostridium sporogenes

back 44

Gram +, bacillus, single, *forms endospores

front 45

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Rhodospirillum rubrum

back 45

Gram -, spirillum, single, red

front 46

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Neisseria sicca

back 46

Gram -, coccus, diplococcus

front 47

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Streptococcus faecalis

back 47

Gram +, coccus, streptococcus

front 48

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Corynebacterium xerosis

back 48

Gram +, bacillus, palisade arrangement

front 49

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Serratia mars

back 49

Gram -, bacillus, single

front 50

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Enterobacter aerogenes

back 50

Gram -, bacillus, single

front 51

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Proteus vulgaris

back 51

Gram -, bacillus, single

front 52

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Mycobacterium smegmatis

back 52

Gram +, bacillus, (irregular rod, acid-fast, single)

front 53

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Micrococcus luteus

back 53

Gram +, coccus, tetrad & sercanae

front 54

Describe morphology, arrangement, and gram: Escherichia coli

back 54

Gram -, bacillus, single

front 55

Phylum-Kingdom Fungi
(The study of Fungi is called mycology)

back 55

classified by how they sexually reproduce (produce spores)
1. Zygomycota-sexually reproduce using zygospores
2. Ascomycota- sexually reproduce using ascospores
3. Basidiomycota-sexually reproduce using basidiospores
4. Deuteromycote-mitosporic (no known spores)

front 56

Phylum-Kingdom Protista (Protozoans)
(Animal like protists are called Protozoans)

back 56

classified by how they move (locomotions) to get their food
1. Mastigophorans-use flagella (whip like motions)
2. Sarcodinia-Pseudopods-false feet, ameba,
3. Ciliphorans- use cilia
4. Apicomplexans- Vectors, use an insect to move

front 57

Phylum-Kingdom Animalia (worms=helminths)

back 57

classified by morphology
1. Nematoda-roundworms
2. Platyhelminth-flatworms
-Class cestoda-tape worms
-Class trematoda-flukes
3. Annelida- leeches and earth worms, segmented

front 58

Kingdom Fungi Molds

back 58

Zygomycota-zygospores-Rhizopus nigrocans-not a pathogen, has fibers, black bread cotton white mold.

Basidiomycota-basidiospores-mushrooms-not a pathogen

Ascomycota-ascospores-Penicillium notatum (blue-green mold), Aspergillus niger (black mold *pathogen)

Candida albicans-mold in humans, yeast infection if too much

Saccharyces cervisine-brewer's yeast

front 59

Kingdom Protista Sickness Examples

back 59

1. Mastigophorans- Trypanosoma- African sleeping sickness, American tryponosomiasis
2. Ciliophorans- Balantidium coli- dysentery (excessive diarrhea)
3. Sarcodinia-Entamoeba histolytica- Amebic dysentery
4. Apicomplexa- Plasmodium vivax- Malaria

front 60

***Chapter 4 Starts Here***
The domain _____ contains some of the most studied prokaryotes.

back 60

Bacteria

front 61

Define Spirochaetes

back 61

live in the mouth and some are STD's like Treponema pallidum that causes syphylis

front 62

The domain Archaea contains organisms with diverse physiologies. Name them.

back 62

Euryarchaeota contain:
-Methanogens-live in anoxic environments
-Extreme halophiles-salt-lovers
-Thermoacidophiles-grow at high temperatures with low pH

front 63

Prokaryotes can be distinguished by their cell _____ and ______.

back 63

Morphology (shape) and arrangement

front 64

A rod shape is called _____. What arrangements does it come in?

back 64

Bacillus: single, diplobacillus, streptobacillus

front 65

A spherical shape is called _____. What arrangements does it come in?

back 65

Coccus; single, diplococcus, streptococcus, staphylococcus

front 66

Spiral-shaped bacteria can appear as ______, ____, or _____

back 66

Vibrios (comma-shaped), spirilla (helical), or spirochete

front 67

Cell structure organizes cell function. Name some functions.

back 67

-sensing/responding to the surrounding environment.
-compartmentation of metabolism
-growth and reproduction

front 68

External structure: Pili, Conjugation Pili

back 68

Pili are protein fibers extending from the surface of many bacteria that are used for attachment.
-Adhesins attach cells to surfaces
-Form biofilms and microcolonies
Some bacterial species have conjugation pili, used to transfer genetic material between cells. (f-plasmid; sex pili)

front 69

Prokaryotic ____ are long appendages extending from the cell surface.

back 69

Flagella; can be used for motility

front 70

Bacteria exhibit chemotaxis. What does this mean?

back 70

When bacteria move up the concentration gradient of a chemical attractant.
-Some prokaryotes move without flagella by gliding across a solid surface.

front 71

Spirochetes contain _____, which move the cell through torsion exerted on the cell by endoflagellar rotation.

back 71

endoflagella
example: Treponema pallidum (causes syphilis)

front 72

All bacteria have an outer mucus layer external to the cell wall called ______. If this layer is thin it is called a ____. If it is thick it is called a _____.

back 72

Glycocalyx- adhering layer of polysaccharides (and sometimes small proteins) - It protects the cells from the environment and allows them to attach to surfaces
Thin layer- Slime layer
Thick layer- Capsule - Extreme velent; can cause extreme illness (hard for wbc phagocytosis to occur; too slimy and thick) Causes disease like Klebsiella pneumoniae (#1 cause nosocomial hospital death for elderly; acquired pneumonia)

front 73

Most bacterial and archaeal cells have a cell envelope. Give some characteristics of the cell wall.

back 73

-counter rigidity, not flexible, tough and protective external shell
-maintains cell shape and water balance

front 74

Gram + have what kind of cell wall?

back 74

Thick peptidoglycan cell walls containing teichoic acid. (amino acid and glucose derivatives) only polysaccharide back bone, NAG NAM-long rod of sugars, Amino acids are the chains attached to the polysaccharide.

*Fungi-chitin
*Plants & Algae- cellulose-complex

front 75

Gram - have what kind of cell wall?

back 75

Have 2D peptidoglycan layer and no teichoic acid. Has an outer membrane, separated from the cell membrane by the periplasmic space.
-The outer membrane contains proteins called porins that selectively allow small molecules into the periplasmic space.
-Lipid A-Endotoxin?
-Much more difficult to deal with medically.

front 76

The archaeal cell wall also provides mechanical strength. What kind of cell wall does it have?

back 76

No archae have peptidoglycan in the cell wall, but some have pseudopeptidoglycan. Others have polysaccharides, proteins, or both.

-The s-layer is the most common archaeal cell wall, consisting of protein or glycoprotein in a crystal lattice.

front 77

The __ _____ represents the interfere between the cell environment and the cell cytoplasm.

back 77

Primary function of cell membrane is transport. **
-fluid thin layer of phospholipid and protein (the fluid mosaic model)
-The phospholipid molecules are arranged in a bilayer
-Hydrophobic fatty acid chains in the phospholipids form a permeability barrier.

front 78

What may disrupt or dissolve the bilayer?

back 78

Antimicrobial substances

front 79

What kind of functions can membrane proteins perform or aid in?

back 79

cell wall synthesis
energy metabolism
dna replication
sensation of stimuli
molecule transport- passive (facilitated diffusion) active (active transport) using ATP

*Prokaryotes have a lot more function (than Euks) because they have no intercellular membrane.

front 80

The archaeal cell membrane differs from bacterial and eukaryal membranes. How?

back 80

-Hydrophobic lipid tails are attached to glycerol differently in Archaea.
-Fatty acids are usually absent
-Adjacent lipid tails are bound together forming a lipid monolayer, instead of a bilayer.
-None of them are medically important.

front 81

What is a nucleiod?

back 81

It represents a subcompartment containing the chromosomes.
-This is the region that gets stained.

front 82

Describe a bacterial chromosome.

back 82

The chromosome is usually a closed loop of DNA and protein.
The DNA contains the genes.

front 83

What is a compete set of genes called?

back 83

Genome

front 84

Most cells have only one copy of each gene (one chromosome). What are they called?

back 84

Haploid

front 85

Plasmids are found in many bacterial and archaeal cells. What are they?

back 85

Small circular molecules of DNA (smaller than the chromosome)
-Each plasmid is a closed loop, containing 5-10 genes
-extrachromosomal DNA

front 86

What can plasmids be used for?

back 86

They can be transferred between cells and be used as vectors in genetic engineering.

Plasmids provide genetic flexibility, for example, R plasmids carry genes for resistance to antibiotics.

front 87

What are the two types of plasmids?

back 87

R plasmids-antibiotic resistance
F plasmids- fertility (conjugation pilli)

front 88

What are the only type of bacteria that don't have a cell wall?

back 88

Mycoplasmas

front 89

What are three spirochete examples? and What do they cause?

back 89

Treponema pallidum- syphilis
Borrelia burgdarfeni- lyme disease
Borrelia recurimentas- relapsing fever

front 90

Other sub compartments exist in the cell cytoplasm such as ribosomes, what are they used for?

back 90

Protein synthesis, same function just different structure than Eukaryotic cells, not membrane bound in proks but are membrane bound in euks

front 91

What do inclusion bodies do?

back 91

Store nutrients or build blocks for cellular structures.

front 92

Some aquatic bacteria use __ _____ to float on the water's surface.

back 92

gas vesicles

front 93

What do magnetosomes contain?

back 93

Contain crystals of magnetite or greigite, allowing cells to respond to magnetic fields.

front 94

What do cytoskeletal proteins regulate?

back 94

cell division and help determine cell shape.
-Prokaryotes contain a homolog of eukaryotic tubulin--it forms filaments similar to those found in microtubules

front 95

**Chapter 5 Starts Here**
What is binary fission?

back 95

It is part of the cell cycle.
-Very quick cell division, shorter doubling time quicker incubation period.
-Acid fast micro bacterium grows very slowly symptoms appear 3,6,9 months.

front 96

What happens during the B period?

back 96

Cell increases in mass and size

front 97

What happens during the C period?

back 97

DNA replicates and the two strands separate

front 98

What happens during the D period?

back 98

Synthesis of a septum forms two identical cells.

front 99

Bacterial and archaeal cells reproduce ______.

back 99

Asexually.

front 100

What is the generation (or doubling) time?

back 100

The interval of time between successive binary fission.

front 101

In pathogens, a ___ doubling time means a _____ incubation period of disease.

back 101

shorter, shorter

front 102

Microbial Growth Progress: Lag Phase

back 102

No cell division occurs while bacteria adapt to their new environment

front 103

Microbial Growth Progress: Logarithmic (log) phase

back 103

When exponential growth of the population occurs, human disease symptoms usually develop.

front 104

Microbial Growth Progress: Stationary phase

back 104

When reproductive and death rates equalize

front 105

Microbial Growth Progress: Decline (exponential death) Phase

back 105

When the accumulation of waste products and scarcity of resources causes the population to die.

front 106

What is dormancy?

back 106

A response to potential or actual environmental change. Non dividing state.

front 107

What are the two dormancy strategies?

back 107

Persister Cell Formation
Endospore Formation

front 108

Persister Cells

back 108

They stop dividing but maintain a low rate of metabolism under stress.

front 109

What do Endospores respond to?

back 109

Nutrient limitation *** important
-Endospores are a highly resistant structure formed by species of Bacillus and Clostridium when nutrient supplies are low.
-Endospores are resistant to desiccation and heat.

front 110

What happens to endospores when environmental conditions are favorable again?

back 110

The protective layers break down and the spore germinates into a vegetative cell. (veg cells stain pink in endospore staining, but the spores will stain aqua/green)

front 111

What are some physical factors that optimal prokaryotic growth is dependent on?

back 111

Temperature, Oxygen, pH level, Hydrostatic and Osmotic Pressure

front 112

Temperature: Psychrophiles

back 112

Grow optimally at 0-20*C and make up the largest portion of all prokaryotes on Earth.

front 113

Temperature: Mesophiles

back 113

Live at medium temp. range 20-40*C; includes pathogens in humans.

front 114

Temperature: Thermophiles

back 114

Live best around 40-80*C; in compost heaps and hot springs.

front 115

Temperature: Hyperthermophiles

back 115

Are archaea that grow optimally above 80*C, found in seafloor hot-water vents

front 116

Oxygen: obligate aerobes

back 116

Many prokaryotes are obligate aerobes, which require oxygen to grow.

front 117

Oxygen: Microaerophiles

back 117

Live in low oxygen environments.

front 118

What is thioglycollate broth used for?

back 118

Used to test an organism's oxygen sensitivity.
-In lab we use it to grow Clostridium

front 119

Oxygen: Anaerobes

back 119

Do not or cannot use oxygen; aerotolerant species are insensitive to oxygen, but obligate anaerobes are inhibited or killed by oxygen.
Ex- clostridium

front 120

Oxygen: Facultative Anaerobes

back 120

Grow either with oxygen or in reduced oxygen environments.
Ex-E.coli

front 121

What do Capnophilic bacteria (microaerophils) require?

back 121

They require an atmosphere low in oxygen and rich in carbon dioxide.

front 122

pH: The majority of species grow optimally at neutral (~7pH) and are called ___.

back 122

Neutrophiles

front 123

pH: Acidophiles

back 123

Acid tolerant prokaryotes
Ex: those used to turn milk into buttermilk, sour cream, and yogurt

front 124

Pressure: Basophiles

back 124

Can withstand incredibly high hydrostatic pressure
-Ex: Psychrophiles living at the bottom of the ocean.

front 125

Pressure: Halophiles

back 125

Salt-tolerant prokaryotes
-They can maintain optimal osmotic pressure
-Ex: Vibrio cholera that causes cholera

front 126

Culture media are used to grow microbes and measure their growth. What are the two basic types?

back 126

Complex medium and Synthetic medium

front 127

What is a complex medium?

back 127

A chemical unidentified medium or complex medium such as a nutrient broth (liquid media) or nutrient agar (solidifying agent for solid media).

front 128

What is a synthetic medium?

back 128

The chemical composition of the medium is known.

front 129

What is a selective medium?

back 129

It contains ingredients to inhibit growth of certain species and allow the growth of others.

front 130

What are two examples of selective medium?

back 130

1. Crystal Violet Agar-plates (absorbed well by Gram +) selective not differential, to select gram- bacteria

2. Eosin Methylene blue agar plates (totally inhibit Gram +) both selective and differential. Selects gram - bacteria. White and clear colonies all gram -. Metallic green colonies is also gram - but this confirms the presence of E.coli. EMB Agar used only to confirm presence of E. coli.

front 131

What is a differential medium?

back 131

Contains specific chemicals to indicate species that possess or lack a biochemical process.
-distinguished groups
-based on colors

front 132

What are two examples of differential medium?

back 132

1. EMB agar- all the colors are gram -, on exam * EMB is an example of differential & selective media; used to confirm presence of E. coli.

2. Sheep's Blood Agar; selective & differential
-No hemolysis=gamma (V) hemolysis
-Partial hemolysis=alpha (looks like fish) hemolysis
-Complete hemolysis=beta (B) hemolysis

**LOOK AT PICTURE IN NOTEBOOK PG 25**

front 133

What happens if you have Beta (complete) hemolysis?

back 133

You have Streptococcus pyogens that causes strep throat.

front 134

When do we use Chocolate Agar?

back 134

Cooked sheeps blood. In our lab we use it to grow Neiserria. "Enriched medium" Enriched with iron.
-Some "fastidious" organisms require an enriched medium containing specific nutrients.

front 135

Many microbes are viable but can/cannot be cultured in lab.

back 135

cannot

front 136

Population measurements are made using ___ ______.

back 136

pure cultures.

front 137

What is a pure culture?

back 137

A population consisting of only one species of prokaryote.

front 138

Define pour-plate isolation method.

back 138

Allows separation of species through dilution of a sample. Is this the same as streak plate?** listen to recording @ 27min. *

front 139

What is the streak-plate isolation method?

back 139

It is used to spread out individual cells to form discrete colonies of species.

front 140

Population can be measured in several ways. What are they?

back 140

Turbidity, Microscopic count, Estimate-through most probable # test, and
Standard plate count procedure

front 141

What is turbidity?

back 141

Cloudiness of a sample can be measured with a spectrophotometer.

front 142

How is the microscopic count used?

back 142

Using counting chamber, placed under light microscope.

front 143

What is the standard plate count procedure?

back 143

Colonies grow on a plate containing a sample of diluted broth. The number of colonies indicates the original number of viable (living) cells in the broth.