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AP GOV unit 3

front 1 Bill of Rights	back 1 The first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, designed to protect individual freedoms from government overreach.
front 2 14th Amendment	back 2 Includes the Equal Protection Clause, Due Process Clause, and Citizenship Clause, extending protections from the Bill of Rights to state governments
front 3 Civil Liberties	back 3 Protections from government interference (e.g., freedom of speech, religion).
front 4 Civil Rights	back 4 Protections against discrimination (e.g., equal protection under the law

front 5 Selective Incorporation	back 5 Process by which the Supreme Court applies Bill of Rights protections to state governments through the 14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause.
front 6 Freedom of Religion	back 6 Lemon Test (Lemon v. Kurtzman, 1971) A law must: Have a secular purpose Not advance/inhibit religion Avoid excessive government entanglement with religion
front 7 Engel v. Vitale (1962)	back 7 Banned school-sponsored prayer as a violation of the Establishment Clause.
front 8 Limitations on Free Exercise	back 8 Religious practices cannot break general laws (e.g., polygamy banned in Reynolds v. U.S.)

front 9 Limitations of the Establishment Clause	back 9 Government cannot endorse or promote religion (e.g., school prayer, government funding of religious activities)
front 10 Freedom of Religion in Schools	back 10 Students can pray privately but cannot be led in prayer by teachers or school officials.
front 11 Schenck v. United States (1919)	back 11 Established the “clear and present danger” test; speech can be restricted if it incites danger.
front 12 Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)	back 12 Students have the right to symbolic speech in schools as long as it does not disrupt learning.

front 13 Citizens United v. FEC (2010)	back 13 Corporations and unions can spend unlimited money on political campaigns under free speech protections.
front 14 Fighting Words	back 14 Speech intended to incite violence is not protected.
front 15 Clear and Present Danger	back 15 Speech that directly causes harm (e.g., shouting "fire" in a crowded theater) is not protected.
front 16 Slander	back 16 Spoken false statements that damage someone’s reputation.

front 17 Miller Test (Miller v. California, 1973)	back 17 Defines obscenity as material that: Appeals to prurient interests Depicts sexual conduct offensively Lacks literary, artistic, political, or scientific value
front 18 Obscenity	back 18 Not protected speech under the First Amendment.
front 19 Seditious Speech	back 19 Speech that advocates the overthrow of the government (not always protected).
front 20 Commercial Speech	back 20 Advertising can be regulated if misleading or promoting illegal activity.

front 21 Freedom of Speech in Schools	back 21 Schools can limit speech if it disrupts the educational process (e.g., Bethel v. Fraser).
front 22 New York Times v. United States (1971)	back 22 Government cannot censor the press (Pentagon Papers case) unless national security is at risk.
front 23 Libel	back 23 False written statements that harm someone’s reputation.
front 24 Prior Restraint	back 24 Government censorship before publication is generally unconstitutional.

front 25 Shield Laws	back 25 Protect journalists from revealing confidential sources.
front 26 Time, Place, and Manner Restrictions	back 26 Protests can be regulated for public safety but not content-based.
front 27 McDonald v. Chicago (2010)	back 27 Incorporated the 2nd Amendment to the states.
front 28 Roe v. Wade (1973)	back 28 Legalized abortion based on a right to privacy under the 14th Amendment.

front 29 Balancing Individual Freedom with Public Order and Safety	back 29 Civil liberties can be restricted in emergencies (e.g., during wartime).
front 30 Writ of Habeas Corpus	back 30 Requires the government to justify imprisonment.
front 31 Ex Post Facto Laws	back 31 Laws cannot punish actions retroactively.
front 32 Substantive Due Process	back 32 Protects fundamental rights.

front 33 Procedural Due Process	back 33 Ensures fair legal proceedings.
front 34 4th Amendment	back 34 Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures.
front 35 New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985)	back 35 School officials need "reasonable suspicion" (not probable cause) to search students.
front 36 Exclusionary Rule	back 36 Illegally obtained evidence cannot be used in court.

front 37 Stop and Frisk	back 37 Police can search based on reasonable suspicion (Terry v. Ohio).
front 38 Exigent Circumstances	back 38 Warrantless searches allowed in emergencies
front 39 Probable Cause	back 39 Strong evidence needed for a warrant.
front 40 5th Amendment	back 40 Protects against self-incrimination, double jeopardy, and guarantees due process.

front 41 Criminal Process	back 41 Steps in prosecuting a crime
front 42 Self-Incrimination	back 42 A person cannot be forced to testify against themselves.
front 43 Double Jeopardy	back 43 Cannot be tried twice for the same crime.
front 44 Eminent Domain	back 44 Government can take private property for public use with compensation.

front 45 Miranda v. Arizona (1966)	back 45 Established Miranda rights (right to remain silent, right to a lawyer).
front 46 Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)	back 46 Right to an attorney even if you cannot afford one, in all state criminal court cases.
front 47 Death Penalty Limitations	back 47 Cannot be used on minors or mentally disabled persons.
front 48 Criminal Law	back 48 Government prosecutes a person for a crime.

front 49 Civil Law	back 49 Private disputes (e.g., contracts, property).
front 50 Standards of Proof	back 50 Criminal cases: "Beyond a reasonable doubt" Civil cases: "Preponderance of evidence"
front 51 Right to Appeal	back 51 Right to challenge a court’s decision.
front 52 Plaintiff	back 52 Person bringing a lawsuit.

front 53 Defendant	back 53 Person being sued or charged.
front 54 Prosecutor	back 54 Government attorney in a criminal case.
front 55 Hung Jury & Mistrial	back 55 Hung Jury: Cannot reach a verdict. Mistrial: Trial is invalid due to error.
front 56 Subpoena & Summons	back 56 Subpoena: Order to testify or present evidence. Summons: Order to appear in court.

front 57 7th Amendment	back 57 Right to a jury in civil cases.
front 58 Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)	back 58 Established "separate but equal."
front 59 Brown v. Board of Education (1954)	back 59 Overturned Plessy, ending school segregation.
front 60 Regents of UC v. Bakke (1978)	back 60 Racial quotas in college admissions unconstitutional but race can be a factor.

front 61 Korematsu v. U.S. (1944)	back 61 Upheld Japanese internment during WWII.
front 62 Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)	back 62 Legalized same-sex marriage nationwide.
front 63 Jim Crow Laws	back 63 Enforced racial segregation.
front 64 De jure segregation	back 64 Legal segregation.

front 65 De facto segregation	back 65 Segregation by practice.
front 66 Affirmative Action	back 66 Affirmative Action
front 67 Key Civil Rights Laws	back 67 Civil Rights Act (1957, 1964, 1968): Outlawed discrimination. Equal Pay Act (1963): Required equal pay for equal work. Voting Rights Act (1965): Banned literacy tests. Title IX (1972): Gender equality in education. ADA (1990): Rights for disabled individuals.
front 68 Naturalization Act of 1906	back 68 Established standardized citizenship procedures in the U.S. Required English proficiency for naturalization. Created the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, centralizing the process.

front 69 Executive Order 9066 (1942)	back 69 Signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during WWII. Allowed the military to designate “exclusion zones” for national security. Led to the forced relocation and internment of over 120,000 Japanese Americans. Upheld by the Supreme Court in Korematsu v. United States (1944), though later criticized.
front 70 Indian Removal Act (1830)	back 70 Signed by President Andrew Jackson. Allowed the government to relocate Native American tribes west of the Mississippi River. Led to the Trail of Tears, where thousands of Native Americans died during forced migration. Challenged in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), but Jackson ignored the ruling.
front 71 Social Movements and Equal Protection	back 71 Social movements: Organized efforts to achieve political, social, or legal change. Equal Protection Clause (14th Amendment): Requires laws to apply equally to all citizens.
front 72 Government Responses to Social Movements	back 72 Role of States States enforce or resist federal policies (e.g., some states resisted desegregation after Brown v. Board). States have their own civil rights laws, such as anti-discrimination policies. Role of Congress Passes laws responding to movements (e.g., Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965). Can amend the Constitution (e.g., 19th Amendment for women’s voting rights).

front 73 Role of the Courts	back 73 Interpret laws and decide if they are constitutional (e.g., Brown v. Board overturned segregation). Protect minority rights against majority rule (e.g., Obergefell v. Hodges legalized same-sex marriage).
front 74 Balancing Minority and Majority Rights	back 74 Majority rule is a principle of democracy, but minority rights must be protected. Courts and government ensure that minorities are not oppressed by discriminatory laws. Examples: Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Protected minority students' rights to education. Voting Rights Act (1965): Prevented racial discrimination in voting.
front 75 MLK’s Letter from Birmingham Jail (1963)	back 75 Written by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. while imprisoned for protesting segregation. Defended nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience. Argued that people have a moral obligation to resist unjust laws.
front 76 15th Amendment (1870)	back 76 Gave African American men the right to vote. Loopholes like literacy tests and poll taxes were used to suppress Black voters.

front 77 19th Amendment (1920)	back 77 Gave women the right to vote. Culmination of the women’s suffrage movement led by activists like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
front 78 24th Amendment (1964)	back 78 Banned poll taxes, which were used to prevent poor and minority citizens from voting.
front 79 26th Amendment (1971)	back 79 Lowered the voting age to 18, largely in response to the Vietnam War (young people could be drafted but not vote).