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ch 42 by124

front 1

Circulatory Systems:

back 1

Larger animals developed circulatory systems to transport oxygen and nutrients quickly across greater distances.

front 2

Specialized Respiratory Surfaces:

back 2

Larger surface areas in organs like lungs or gills help maximize gas exchange efficiency over small distances.

front 3

Cnidarians, like the moon jelly in Figure 42.2 in your text, and planarians do
not have a distinct circulatory system. How have they solved the problem of exchange?

back 3

Cnidarians and planarians maximize direct diffusion by being thin or having cells close to their environment. This eliminates the need for a circulatory system.

front 4

Larger animals must have a circulatory system to move fluid between cells and the outside
environment. What are the three basic components of a circulatory system?

back 4

A circulatory fluid (blood or hemolymph), a set of vessels, and a pump (heart).

front 5

What is hemolymph?

back 5

Hemolymph is the fluid in animals with an open circulatory system, combining blood and interstitial fluid

front 6

Contrast open circulatory systems with closed circulatory systems.

back 6

  • Open System: Fluid (hemolymph) bathes organs directly; seen in insects.
  • Closed System: Blood remains in vessels; nutrient exchange occurs across vessel walls, as in vertebrates

front 7

Artery

back 7

Carries blood away from the heartThick muscular walls

front 8

Arteriole

back 8

Distributes blood to capillariesSmaller, with smooth muscle

front 9

Vein

back 9

VeinReturns blood to the heartThin walls, often with valves

front 10

Venule

back 10

Collects blood from capillariesThin-walled, leading to veins

front 11

Capillary

back 11

Site of exchangeThin-walled, single-cell thickness

front 12

Atria

back 12

Receive blood returning to the heart.

front 13

Ventricles

back 13

Pump blood out of the heart.

front 14

Single Circulation

back 14

Blood flows through the heart once per cycle, as in fish.

front 15

Double Circulation

back 15

Blood passes through the heart twice, allowing separate pulmonary and systemic circuits, as in mammals and birds.

front 16

In a circulatory system, exchange occurs in two general places. Blood goes to a respiratory
surface (lungs, gills, skin) or to the organs and tissues of the body (systemic circulation).
Through which type of blood vessel does exchange actually occur?

back 16

Exchange occurs in capillaries where blood meets tissues

front 17

Fish

back 17

Two-chambered heart; single circulation; blood oxygenated in gills.

front 18

Amphibians

back 18

Three-chambered heart; partial separation in double circulation; some mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

front 19

Mammals

back 19

Four-chambered heart; complete double circulation; full separation ensures efficient oxygen delivery

front 20

Why is a four-chambered heart a key adaptation required for endothermy?

back 20

It allows separate pulmonary and systemic circulation, supplying high oxygen levels for metabolic demands of endothermy.

front 21

Use the four-chambered heart of birds and mammals to explain the concept of convergent
evolution

back 21

Birds and mammals independently evolved four-chambered hearts, a convergence enabling higher metabolic rates required by endothermic life.

front 22

Cardiac Cycle

back 22

Sequence of heart contraction and relaxation.

front 23

Systole

back 23

Heart chambers contract, pumping blood.

front 24

Diastole

back 24

Heart chambers relax, filling with blood.

front 25

Cardiac Output

back 25

Volume of blood pumped per minute, dependent on heart rate and stroke volume.

front 26

Atrioventricular Valves

back 26

Prevent backflow from ventricles to atria.

front 27

Semilunar Valves

back 27

Prevent backflow from arteries to ventricles.

front 28

Sinoatrial Node and Cardiac Cycle

back 28

The SA node initiates electric impulses, coordinating heart rhythm. Each blue mark in the cardiac cycle represents phases from atrial contraction to ventricular filling.

front 29

How do structure and function correlate in the capillaries?

back 29

Capillaries’ thin walls allow efficient nutrient and gas exchange between blood and tissues.

front 30

What anatomical feature of the veins maintains a unidirectional flow of blood back toward
the heart?

back 30

  • Valves in veins prevent backflow, ensuring blood returns to the heart.

front 31

As blood vessel diameter decreases, blood velocity will ____________

back 31

decreases

front 32

Why does blood slow as it moves from arteries to arterioles to capillaries? Why is this
important?

back 32

Slowdown is crucial for efficient gas and nutrient exchange in capillaries

front 33

Explain the exchange of fluid at the two ends of a capillary by annotating this figure. Include
these terms in your discussion: interstitial fluid, osmotic pressure, and blood pressure.

back 33

Blood Pressure forces fluid out at the capillary’s arterial end; Osmotic Pressure draws fluid back at the venous end.

front 34

Why does the presence of blood proteins tend to pull fluid back into the capillaries?

back 34

Blood proteins increase osmotic pressure, pulling fluid back into capillaries to balance fluid exchange

front 35

The capillaries “leak” about 4 L of fluid each day. How is this returned to the blood?

back 35

  • The lymphatic system collects and returns leaked fluid back to the bloodstream.

front 36

What is lymph? Is it more like blood or more like interstitial fluid?

back 36

resembles interstitial fluid, containing some white blood cells but fewer proteins than blood

front 37

We don’t have a second heart to pump lymph. What keeps lymph moving along?

back 37

  • Skeletal muscle contractions and valves help move lymph through vessels.

front 38

Blood separates into two components, a liquid matrix called ________________ and the
cellular elements

back 38

Plasma is the liquid matrix in which cells are suspended

front 39

List the cellular elements of blood and give their general functions

back 39

  • Red blood cells: Oxygen transport.
  • White blood cells: Defense against pathogens.
  • Platelets: Blood clotting.

front 40

Describe three ways in which the structure of an erythrocyte enhances its function, which is
to transport oxygen.

back 40

Shape (biconcave) for increased surface area, no nucleus for maximum hemoglobin, and flexibility to navigate capillaries.

front 41

What is the role of hemoglobin? What mineral is required to make it?

back 41

Hemoglobin binds oxygen; iron is essential for its function

front 42

How does sickle-cell disease affect the ability of the respiratory system to deliver oxygen and
remove waste

back 42

Abnormally shaped red cells impede oxygen transport, leading to insufficient oxygen delivery

front 43

Where are blood stem cells found?

back 43

bone marrow.

front 44

Blood Clotting Mechanism

back 44

  • Prothrombin converts to thrombin, activating fibrinogen to form fibrin, creating a clot.

front 45

Plaque

back 45

from fats and cholesterol narrows arteries.

front 46

Heart Attack

back 46

Blocked coronary arteries; Stroke: Blocked brain arteries.

front 47

LDLs

back 47

transport cholesterol to cells (can lead to plaque); HDLs remove excess cholesterol.

front 48

Hypertension

back 48

damages vessels, increasing risk of heart disease.

front 49

Gas exchange with water as the respiratory medium is much more demanding than exchange
with the air. What are three reasons for this?

back 49

Water has lower oxygen, higher density, and viscosity, making gas exchange more energy-intensive.

front 50

There are several requirements for a respiratory surface. It must be moist, have a large
surface area, and be thin. What four different organs satisfy these requirements?

back 50

Gills, tracheae, lungs, and skin can serve as moist respiratory surfaces

front 51

Countercurrent Exchange in Gills

back 51

Countercurrent flow maximizes oxygen absorption as water and blood flow in opposite directions across gill capillaries.

front 52

Oxygen Absorption Without Countercurrent Exchange

back 52

  • Maximum absorption would be around 50%, far less efficient than countercurrent flow.

front 53

What is the most common respiratory structure among terrestrial animals? What groups have
this system?

back 53

  • Lungs are the predominant respiratory structure among terrestrial vertebrates.

front 54

Mammalian Respiratory Anatomy

back 54

The pharynx channels air to the larynx and trachea, splitting into bronchi and narrowing to bronchioles, ending in alveoli for gas exchange

front 55

explain how negative pressure breathing occurs in mammals

back 55

Diaphragm contraction expands the chest cavity, reducing pressure and drawing air into the lungs.

front 56

explain the homeostatic control of breathing

back 56

Increased CO₂, not O₂ levels, triggers the respiratory rate to prevent acidosis.

front 57

n general, what has a greater effect on the rate of
respiration, low levels of O2 or high levels of CO2? Explain why.

back 57

High CO₂ levels primarily increase respiration to remove excess carbon dioxide and maintain pH

front 58

Oxygen and CO₂ Path from Inhalation to Exhalation

back 58

Oxygen travels from alveoli to blood, to tissues, then CO₂ moves from tissues to blood, finally exhaled through the alveoli

front 59

What is the respiratory pigment in vertebrates?

back 59

Hemoglobin

front 60

Hemoglobin is a protein with quaternary structure. How many subunits does it have? What is
the role of iron?

back 60

Hemoglobin has four subunits, each with iron that binds oxygen.

front 61

Where does the constant production of carbon dioxide originate and
how is it removed from the body?

back 61

Cellular respiration produces CO₂, transported in blood and removed through the lungs.