front 1 classical conditioning | back 1 type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response |
front 2 learning | back 2 a relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought by experience |
front 3 correspondence between learning and performance | back 3 not always 1-1, there are factors other than learning like fatigue or lack of effort |
front 4 habituation | back 4 the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus |
front 5 Ivan Pavlov | back 5 developed the framework for learning called classical conditioning |
front 6 Pavlov's experiment | back 6 Conditioned a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell instead of the food |
front 7 Neutral stimulus | back 7 in the dog example, this is the bell before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response desired |
front 8 unconditioned stimulus | back 8 a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned the food |
front 9 unconditioned response | back 9 a natural innate response that occurs automatically and needs no training the salvation |
front 10 conditioned stimulus | back 10 once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus |
front 11 conditioned response | back 11 conditioned stimulus brings about the conditioned response |
front 12 extinction | back 12 occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears |
front 13 spontaneous recovery | back 13 is the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of time and with no further conditioning |
front 14 stimulus generalization | back 14 is a process in which after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, other stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response |
front 15 stimulus discrimination | back 15 occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from each other such that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not |
front 16 taste aversion | back 16 when the taste of a particular food is associated with unpleasant symptoms such as nausea or vomiting |
front 17 operant conditioning | back 17 learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on the response's favorable or unfavorable consequences. |
front 18 Thorndike's Law of Effect | back 18 An organism's ability to learn to do something that rewards them over time. Over time and through experience, the organism would make a direct connection between the stimulus and the response without any awareness that the connection existed. |
front 19 law of effect | back 19 which states that responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated. |
front 20 Reinforcement | back 20 the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated |
front 21 reinforcer | back 21 any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again |
front 22 primary reinforcer | back 22 satisfies some biological need - food, warmth, pain relief |
front 23 secondary reinforcer | back 23 reinforce in association with a primary reinforcer (like money) |
front 24 positive reinforcer | back 24 is a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response |
front 25 negative reinforcer | back 25 refers to an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future |
front 26 punishment | back 26 refers to a stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again |
front 27 negative punishment | back 27 consists of the removal of something pleasant |
front 28 positive punishment | back 28 weakens a response by applying an unpleasant stimulus |
front 29 schedule of reinforcement | back 29 pattern of the frequency and timing of reinforcement that follow desired behavior |
front 30 continuous reinforcement schedule | back 30 behavior that is reinforced every time it occurs |
front 31 partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule | back 31 behavior that is reinforced some but not all of the time it occurs |
front 32 extinction | back 32 the disappearance of the conditioned response |
front 33 fixed ratio schedule | back 33 reinforcement given only after a specific number of responses |
front 34 variable ratio schedule | back 34 behaviors are reinforced after an average number of responses, but exactly when reinforcement will occur is unpredictable |
front 35 fixed interval schedule | back 35 provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed |
front 36 variable interval schedule | back 36 the time between reinforcements varies around some average |
front 37 shaping | back 37 is the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. |
front 38 behavior modification | back 38 is a technique for increasing the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones |
front 39 goal vs. target behavior | back 39 goal "increase study time" target behavior "to study at least 2 hours per day on weekdays" |
front 40 cognitive learning | back 40 focuses on how people think, uses internal thoughts and expectations of learners |
front 41 latent learning | back 41 a new behavior is learned but not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it (occurs without reinforcement) |
front 42 cognitive map | back 42 a mental representation of spatial locations and directions |
front 43 observational learning | back 43 which is learning by watching the behavior of another person or model behavior of models who are rewarded for a given behavior is more likely to be imitated than that of models who are punished for the behavior. |
front 44 mirror neurons | back 44 fire when we observe another person carrying out a behavior suggests that the capacity to imitate others may be innate. |
front 45 motor learning | back 45 learning through practice |
front 46 relational style learning | back 46 learning style using the big picture |
front 47 analytical learning style | back 47 learning style do best when they first analyze the various components underlying an object |
front 48 sensation | back 48 activation of the sense organs (physical response) |
front 49 perception | back 49 stimuli are interpreted (psychological response) |
front 50 stimulus | back 50 any passing source of physical energy that produces a response in a sense organ |
front 51 psychophysics | back 51 study of the relationship between the actual physical aspects of a stimulus and our psychological experience of that stimulus |
front 52 absolute threshold | back 52 is the lowest intensity of a stimulus that an organism can detect |
front 53 noise | back 53 background stimulation that interferes with the perception of other stimuli (not just auditory stimuli) |
front 54 difference threshold | back 54 the smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred. |
front 55 just noticeable difference | back 55 the difference threshold is the minimum change in stimulation required to detect the difference between two stimuli |
front 56 webers law | back 56 a just noticeable difference is in constant proportion to the intensity of an initial stimulus (not constant amount) |
front 57 adaptation | back 57 an adjustment in sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli due to the inability of the sensory nerve receptors to fire off messages to the brain indefinitely |
front 58 vision | back 58 the physical energy that stimulates the eye |
front 59 cornea | back 59 a transparent protective window at the front of the eye (curved to bend and refract light) |
front 60 pupil | back 60 a dark hole that opens depending on the amount of light in the environment, dimmer it is the more it opens |
front 61 lens | back 61 past the pupil, focuses light by changing its own thickness (accommodation) |
front 62 retina | back 62 is the part of the eye that converts the electromagnetic energy of light to electrical impulses for transmission to the brain. is upside down after the lens |
front 63 rods | back 63 thin, cylindrical receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light related to peripheral vision |
front 64 cones | back 64 cone-shaped, light-sensitive receptor cells in the retina that are responsible for sharp focus and color perception in the fovea (particularly sensitive) relate to color vision |
front 65 optic nerve | back 65 ganglion cells collect and summarize visual information which is then moved out the back of the eyeball and sent to the brain through a bundle of ganglion axons called the optic nerve |
front 66 optic chiasm | back 66 the optic nerves from each eye meet at a point roughly between the two eyes called the optic chiasm |
front 67 visual cortex of the brain | back 67 where the ultimate processing of visual images takes place here, the most complex kinds of processing occurs here |
front 68 feature detectors | back 68 are specialized neurons that are activated only by visual stimuli having certain features, such as a particular shape or pattern |
front 69 color vision | back 69 approximately 7% of men and .4% of women are color blind |
front 70 trichromatic theory of color vision | back 70 suggests that there are three kinds of cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a specific range of wavelengths |
front 71 after image | back 71 activity in the retina continues even when you are no longer staring at the original picture |
front 72 opponent process theory of color vision | back 72 receptor cells are linked in pairs, working in opposition to each other |
front 73 outer ear | back 73 acts as a reverse megaphone |
front 74 sound localization | back 74 the process by which we identify the direction from which a sound is coming |
front 75 sound | back 75 movement of air molecules brought about by a source of vibration |
front 76 auditory canal | back 76 a tube-like passage that leads to the eardrum |
front 77 eardrum | back 77 part of the ear that vibrates when sound waves hit it |
front 78 inner ear | back 78 portion of the ear that changes the sound vibrations into a form in which they can be transmitted to the brain |
front 79 cochlea | back 79 a coiled tube that looks something like a snail and is filled with liquid that vibrates in response to sound. |
front 80 basilar membrane | back 80 a structure that runs through the center of the cochlea, dividing it into an upper chamber and a lower chamber, covered with hair cells |
front 81 hair cells | back 81 when they are bent by the vibrations entering the cochlea, the cells send a neural message to the brain |
front 82 frequencies | back 82 translate to the pitch. low frequency is low pitch |
front 83 amplitude | back 83 distinguishes between loud and soft sounds |
front 84 hyperacusis | back 84 a person is acutely sensitive to sounds that others find tolerable |
front 85 place theory of hearing | back 85 states that different areas of the basilar membrane are specialized to respond to different sound frequencies |
front 86 frequency theory of hearing | back 86 the entire basilar membrane acts as a microphone, vibrating as a whole in response to a sound |
front 87 left ear | back 87 responds more to music |
front 88 right ear | back 88 responds more to speech |
front 89 echolocation | back 89 the use of sound waves and echoes to determine where objects are |
front 90 olfactory cells | back 90 in the nose to help us smell, they regenerate and are vulnerable to pollutants, and viruses |
front 91 gustation | back 91 sense of taste four basic stimulus qualities - sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and arguably umami |
front 92 subertasters vs nontasters | back 92 people who are highly sensitive to taste and those who are insensitive |
front 93 complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) | back 93 a disease characterized by a constant, intense pain that is out of proportion to any injury |
front 94 skin senses | back 94 touch, pressure, temperature, and pain |
front 95 chronic pain | back 95 defined as the presence of pain on most days or every day during the past 6 months |
front 96 gate - control theory of pain | back 96 particular nerve receptors in the spinal cord lead to specific areas of the brain related to pain |
front 97 synesthesia | back 97 a perceptual phenomenon in which the stimulation of one sensory system involuntarily leads a person to experience an additional sensory response in a different sensory system |
front 98 perception | back 98 a constructive process by which we go beyond the stimuli that are presented to us and attempt to construct a meaningful situation |
front 99 Gestalt Laws of organization | back 99 important principles that are valid for visual and auditory stimuli - closure, proximity, similarity, and simplicity |
front 100 top down processing | back 100 perception is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations |
front 101 bottom up processing | back 101 consists of the progression of recognizing and processing information from individual components of stimuli and moving to the perception of the whole |
front 102 depth perception | back 102 ability to view of the world in three dimensions and to perceive distance |
front 103 monocular cues | back 103 certain cues that permit us to obtain a sense of depth and distance with just one eye |
front 104 perceptual constancy | back 104 the recognition that physical objects are consistent and do not vary even though our sensory input about them changes |
front 105 visual illusions | back 105 physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception |
front 106 encoding | back 106 the initial process of recording information in a form usable to memory |
front 107 storage | back 107 maintenance of material saved in memory |
front 108 retrieval | back 108 material in memory has been located and brought into awareness to be useful |
front 109 memory | back 109 process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information |
front 110 three system memory theory | back 110 sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory |
front 111 sensory memory | back 111 the initial, momentary storage of information that lasts only an instant |
front 112 short-term memory | back 112 holds information for 15-25 seconds and stores it according to its meaning |
front 113 long-term memory | back 113 a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve |
front 114 iconic memory | back 114 type of sensory memory that refers to the visual system lasts less than a second |
front 115 echoic memory | back 115 type of sensory memory that refers to the auditory system lasts 2-3 seconds |
front 116 is information lost | back 116 unless information in a snapshot is moved to some other type of memory it is lost |
front 117 chunk | back 117 a group of seperate pieces of information stored as a single unit in short-term memory (like phone numbers) |
front 118 rehearsal | back 118 the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory |
front 119 rote repetition | back 119 just repeating information over and over. less likely to be moved from short-term to long- term |
front 120 elaborative rehearsal | back 120 information is considered and organized in some fashion |
front 121 mnemonics | back 121 strategies for organizing information in a way that makes the information more likely to be remembered |
front 122 working memory | back 122 the memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information |
front 123 central executive processor | back 123 apart of the working memory. involved in reasoning, decision making, and planning. integrates and coordinates information from three distinct subsystems |
front 124 subsystems of working memory | back 124 visual store (visual and spatial info), verbal store (holds and manipulates material relating to language), episodic buffer (contains info that represents events and occurrences) |
front 125 primacy effect | back 125 items presented early in a list are remembered better |
front 126 recency effect | back 126 items presented later in a list are remembered best |
front 127 declarative memory | back 127 memory for factual information: names, faces, dates (sometimes called explicit memory) things |
front 128 procedural memory | back 128 (also called nondeclarative memory or implicit memory): memory for skills and habits how to do things |
front 129 semantic memory | back 129 one division of declarative memory general knowledge about facts of the world. example: 2x2=4 |
front 130 episodic memory | back 130 one division of declarative memory events that occur in a particular time, place, or context example: where and how we learned 2x2=4 |
front 131 semantic networks | back 131 mental representations of clusters of interconnected information |
front 132 spreading activation | back 132 activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories in a process known as spreading activation |
front 133 engram | back 133 the term for the physical memory trace in the brain that corresponds to a memory produced by a complex of biochemical and neural processes |
front 134 hippocampus | back 134 helps to consolidate memories |
front 135 cerebral cortex | back 135 where memories are actually stored |
front 136 amygdala | back 136 involved with memories involving emotion |
front 137 long-term potentiation | back 137 certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned |
front 138 consolidation | back 138 memories become fixed and stable (takes time) |
front 139 transcranial alternating current stimulation (tCAS) | back 139 stimulates the brain and in turn improves memory in experimental settings |
front 140 tip of the tongue phenomenon | back 140 temporary inability to remember information one is certain one knows not complete memory failure |
front 141 retrieval cues | back 141 a stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information that is in long-term memory ex: word, emotion, sound |
front 142 recall | back 142 the specific piece of information must be retreived |
front 143 recongition | back 143 when people are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it previously or are asked to identify it from a list of alternatives. |
front 144 levels of processing theory | back 144 emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed the greater the intensity of its intial processing, the more likely we are to remember it |
front 145 explicit memory | back 145 refers to intentional or consious recollection of information |
front 146 implicit memory | back 146 refers to memories of which people are not consiously aware but can affect subsequent performance and behavior |
front 147 priming | back 147 occurs when exposure to a word or concept (called the prime) later makes it easier to recall information related to the prime. |
front 148 other race effect | back 148 the phenomenon in which people have more difficulty recongizing and recalling faces of other races (can be explained by implicit memories |
front 149 flashbulb memories | back 149 memories related to a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid they represent a virtual snapshot of the event often inaccurate and don't remember everything |
front 150 source amnesia | back 150 occurs when an individual has a memory for some material but cannot remember where they encountered it |
front 151 constructive processes | back 151 memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events |
front 152 schemas | back 152 organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled |
front 153 repressed memory | back 153 apparent recollections of events that are intially so shocking that the mind responds by pushing them into the unconscious |
front 154 false memories | back 154 a person remembers information/events that did not happen or in an inaccurate way |
front 155 false confessions | back 155 when an innocent person, accused of a crime and interrogated extensively by the police, comes to believe and remember that they actually commited the crime |
front 156 autobiographical memory | back 156 our recollections of our own life experiences |
front 157 decay | back 157 loss of information in memory through nonuse not the complete reason for forgetting |
front 158 interference | back 158 information stored in memory disrupts the recall of other information sotred in memory |
front 159 cue dependent forgetting | back 159 forgetting that occurs when a person has insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory |
front 160 retrieval-induced forgetting | back 160 the prefrontal cortex of the brain manages access to information stored in memory, enhancing access to information we use most frequently and inhibiting access to conflicting information |
front 161 proactive interference | back 161 information learned earlier disrupts recall of newer material |
front 162 retroactive interference | back 162 occurs when material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier |
front 163 Alzheimer's disease | back 163 a progressive brain disorder - begins as forgetfulness and ends as inability to speak and eventually death only common memory disease |
front 164 amnesia | back 164 memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties |
front 165 retrograde amnesia | back 165 quite rare, memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event |
front 166 anterograde amnesia | back 166 loss of memory occurs for events that follow an injury. information cannot be transferred from short to long term memory; unable to remember anything in long term before the injury. |
front 167 Wernicke - Korsakoff syndrome | back 167 a disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics |