front 1 homeostasis | back 1 regulate their internal state - requires a barrier separating internal and external spaces - metabolic processes to provide energy and materials |
front 2 surviving as a lineage requires | back 2 growth and reproduction capacity to adapt to change (evolution) |
front 3 hypothesis | back 3 a tentative or speculative explanation or prediction that is testable by observation or experiment |
front 4 theory | back 4 an explanation that is well-supported by scientific studies |
front 5 law | back 5 a narrowly focused prediction derived from a wider theory |
front 6 hypothesis and theories | back 6 CANT be proved!! only supported or not supported |
front 7 evolution | back 7 adapting to change - requires growth and reproduction - change in the genetic composition of a population over time |
front 8 scientific method | back 8 make observation -> generate hypothesis -> make predictions -> test predictions |
front 9 cells arise spontaneously.... | back 9 from non-living materials |
front 10 Louis Pasteur's work | back 10 bacterial spread is more efficient when left in an open container rather than closed --broth experiment |
front 11 DNA structure | back 11 a molecule carrying genetic material that is double-stranded made up of nucleotides |
front 12 nitrogenous bases (purines) | back 12 adenine and guanine |
front 13 nitrogenous bases (pyrimidines) | back 13 cytosine and thymine |
front 14 genes | back 14 sequence of nucleotides in DNA encodes genetic instructions needed to build and maintain an organism. determines order provides a blueprint for producing specific proteins |
front 15 DNA replication is a semiconservative process | back 15 each new double helix consists of one original strand and a newly synthesized strand |
front 16 DNA "unzips" then each strand is used to synthesize a new strand through | back 16 complementary base pairing |
front 17 transcription | back 17 a process by which the information in a gene DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA molecule |
front 18 translation | back 18 when mRNA sequence is used to direct the synthesis of a protein |
front 19 proteins are made up of | back 19 amino acids which are used to determine the nucleotide sequence |
front 20 genetic code is consisted of codons which match with.. | back 20 corresponding transfer RNA molecule |
front 21 mRNA binds to a ribosome | back 21 a molecular machine that facilitates the assembly of proteins - catalyses the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids building the protein chain |
front 22 Mendelian genetics (principals of heredity) | back 22 Gregor Mendel figured out how traits are inherited from one generation to the next |
front 23 2 laws of inheritance | back 23 law of segregation and law of independent assortment |
front 24 law of segregation | back 24 each individual possesses 2 alleles for a gene (one from each parent) - these alleles separate during formation of gametes (sperm and egg) |
front 25 law of independent assortment | back 25 alleles of different genes assort independently of one another, during the formation of gametes - inheritance of one trait does not influence the inheritance of another trait |
front 26 haploid | back 26 each gamete carriers one allele for each gene |
front 27 diploid | back 27 organisms that carry 2 copies of each gene |
front 28 alleles | back 28 carry more than one version of genes |
front 29 locus | back 29 individual can have 2 copies of the same allele - homozygous state individual can have 2 copies of different allele - heterozygous state |
front 30 dominant | back 30 trait seen even with one copy |
front 31 recessive | back 31 need both alleles shown in trait |
front 32 incomplete dominance | back 32 the heterozygous has an intermediate phenotype |
front 33 polygenic inheritance | back 33 multiple genes influence a single trait |
front 34 codominance | back 34 both alleles are fully expressed in heterozygote |
front 35 DNA | back 35 master copy of genetic code |
front 36 mRNA | back 36 message used for gene expression (transcribed from DNA, translated into protein) |
front 37 genes are organized into codons | back 37 1 codon -- 1 amino acid |
front 38 the central dogma of molecular biology connects | back 38 genotype (genes) and phenotype (physical traits) |
front 39 mutations | back 39 can result from DNA damage |
front 40 point mutation | back 40 from single nucleus subunit |
front 41 frameshift mutation | back 41 from nucleus insertions or deletion |
front 42 gene duplication or deletion | back 42 shift in gene |
front 43 genome of an organism | back 43 the entire set of genetic info carried in DNA - consisted of pieces of DNA called chromosomes |
front 44 ploidy | back 44 the number of sets of chromosomes |
front 45 gametes | back 45 half amount of the chromosomes |
front 46 mitosis | back 46 creates a duplicated cell with an identical genome |
front 47 binary fission | back 47 duplicate in mitosis |
front 48 meiosis | back 48 daughter cells with half genomic content - genetic info is heritable |
front 49 diploid organisms | back 49 homozygous (2 same alleles) heterozygous (2 diff alleles) |
front 50 interaction of alleles leads to | back 50 phenotype |
front 51 assumption of mendelian | back 51 1. each gene has 2 copies 2. at a locus individuals can be homozygous or heterozygous 3. gametes are haploid |
front 52 evolutionary change | back 52 - measure the rate of new mutations - observe the spread of new genetic variants - see the effects of genetic change on the function of organisms |
front 53 long- term morphological changes | back 53 result of underlying genetic changes |
front 54 evolutionary theory | back 54 understanding and applying the mechanisms of evolutionary change to biological problems - used to study and treat diseases - allows biologists to understand how life diversified - helps us make predictions about the biological world |
front 55 Charles Darwin | back 55 developed the explanatory theory for evolutionary change - independent discovery (collecting specimens, plants, and animals) |
front 56 Darwin 3 major propositions | back 56 1. species are not immutable; they change over time 2. divergent species share a common ancestor and have diverged from one another over time 3. changes in species over time can be explained by natural selection (increases survival and reproduction of some individuals compared to others based on different traits) most species are born than survive to reproduce |
front 57 selection in nature is.. | back 57 based on traits that increased survival and reproduction of organisms |
front 58 artificial selection | back 58 selective breeding of organisms, commonly practiced by animal and plant breeders, to increase the frequency of a favored trait from one generation to the next |
front 59 2 naturalists | back 59 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace |
front 60 Alfred Russel Wallace | back 60 made his way in the world by selling species he found (plants and animals) |
front 61 Plato's theory of forms | back 61 represent new ideas from imperfect ideas |
front 62 Aristotle's Scala Naturae | back 62 rank living things by how relative they are to humans lowest: plants highest: humans |
front 63 natural theology | back 63 - all things created by God fit into Naturae - prefect form of everything |
front 64 Bishop William Paley | back 64 argument from design (watchmaker argument) - organisms are complex and well-adapted because they were made by God *all things are like a watch because the insides are designed perfectly, complex, and intellectually* |
front 65 the challenge of the fossil record: | back 65 - multiple layers of fossil species - many of these species no longer exist - increasing similarity to modern species |
front 66 catastrophism | back 66 a theory that the Earth's geological features result from sudden, short-lived, and violent events, like earthquakes, floods, and volcanic eruptions. - some species disappear suddenly and are replaced by new species. |
front 67 Georges Cuvier | back 67 - mass extinctions via major catastrophes - new groups of species followed |
front 68 uniformitarianism | back 68 forces acting on the Earth were the same in the past as in the present - change is slow "gradualism" |
front 69 Charles Lyell | back 69 his principles of geology were highly influential: Darwin read his work |
front 70 Lamarkin Evolution (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck) | back 70 spontaneous generation produces simple species that evolve over time due to 2 forces |
front 71 2 forces from spontaneous generation | back 71 1. "drive towards complexity" - innate force tending to move species up the scala naturae 2. "adaptive forces" - individuals change in response to their needs (passed to offspring) |
front 72 Thomas Malthus | back 72 wrote "Essay on Principle of Population" - observations on problems of human population growth - population increases over time (causing food and resource shortages) |
front 73 key observations | back 73 - species are highly diversified - the more similar species are, the more closely they tend to be located to one another - many species have gone extinct - modern species tend to differ over time all species tend to produce more offspring than # of parents |
front 74 not all individuals survive... | back 74 there is a "struggle for existence" between individuals within the population - individuals within a population differ from one another in # of traits |
front 75 Some individuals will happen to be better suited to their environment because | back 75 they are more likely to survive and reproduce - differential reproduction is based on trait (natural selection) - differences in individuals tend to be heritable |
front 76 selection results in.. | back 76 changes in the average traits of a population - a change in genetic composition --- evolution |
front 77 is reproduction required in evolution? | back 77 yes, producing more offspring is important ex: allele frequency change --> this means evolution occurred |
front 78 how will changes lead to new allele frequencies from one generation to the next? | back 78 relative changes in the relative success of different phenotypes in a population |
front 79 fitness | back 79 a phenotype is determined by the relative rates of survival and reproduction of individuals within that phenotype |
front 80 qualitative traits | back 80 traits distinguished by discrete qualities or genes (black v white) |
front 81 quantitative traits | back 81 traits are more likely to show continuous quantitative variation rather than discrete qualitative variation -- body size - trait influenced by genes |
front 82 stabilizing selection | back 82 preserves the average characteristics of a population by favoring average individuals |
front 83 direction selection | back 83 changes the characteristics of a population by favoring individuals that vary in one direction from the mean of the population |
front 84 disruptive selection | back 84 changes the characteristics of a population by favoring individuals that vary in both directions from the mean of the population |
front 85 directional selection | back 85 is operating when individuals at one extreme of a character distribution contribute more offspring to the next generation than other individuals do - may result in favoring a particular genetic variant - increase in the frequencies of alleles that produce the favored phenotype |
front 86 polymorphism | back 86 the presence of 2 or more variants of a character in the same population |
front 87 frequency-dependent selection | back 87 the fitness of a given phenotype dependent on frequency in population |
front 88 microevolution | back 88 changes within species often involve single mutations/ qualitative changes may occur over one generation or thousands |
front 89 macroevolution | back 89 processes are too slow to observe directly relying on the fossil record, the geographic distribution of species, homologous traits, vestigial traits -harder to observe directly |
front 90 mycrobacterium tuberculosis | back 90 a disease killing more adults than any other, but an antibiotic was created which reduced the deaths from industrialized countries |
front 91 Rifampin (antibiotic) | back 91 a molecule that binds to RNA polymerase and interferes with transcription |
front 92 bacteriostatic antibiotic | back 92 resistant bacteria have a single point mutation in the gene rPOB that encodes part of RNA polymerase which is a single change in amino acid resistance |
front 93 mutations are... | back 93 beneficial in a particular environment are no more likely to appear |
front 94 strategies to reduce antibiotic resistance | back 94 - restricting use to bacterial infections - reduced use in agriculture - rotating antibiotics |
front 95 transitional forms | back 95 evolutionary theory predicts that species and traits evolve and change over time rather than appearing suddenly -- fixed form |
front 96 fossils show... | back 96 intermediate step ex: from land mammal to whale |
front 97 evolution of complex eyes | back 97 living species show eye structures reflecting a likely evolutionary pathway |
front 98 intermediary | back 98 how a basic structure develops into a complex structure - each step offers an advantage over the previous form |
front 99 evolutionary theory states.. | back 99 new species form from existing species - closely related species cannot be dispersed - independent evolution leads to new related species |
front 100 island biogeography | back 100 study of the relationship between the geographic features of island and the evolution of species on those islands - remote islands support speciation because a single colonizing species may find many open ecological niches |
front 101 homologous traits | back 101 complex structures and functions cannot appear from nothing but must evolve from existing structures - found at various biological levels ex: looking at bones, seeing how structural elements have evolved and changes from pre-existing bone structures of similar species |
front 102 vestigial traits | back 102 traits or structures not undergoing selection will tend to persist, even if they are no longer functional - traits that have lost their function in a particular species or group ex: pelvic girdles in whales-- remaining elements in some modern whales but it doesn't decrease fitness so they persist |
front 103 hardy- weinburg equilibrium | back 103 allele frequencies do not change across generations and genotype frequencies can be predicted from allele frequencies - explains why all biological populations evolve |
front 104 5 principal processes of evolution | back 104 1. no mutation 2. no selection among genotypes 3. no gene flow 4. pop size is infinite 5. mating is random |
front 105 how to measure evolution? | back 105 1. each gene has 2 copies in each individual 2. at a locus an individual can be homozygous or heterozygous 3. gametes are haploid and contain one random allele from the diploid parent 4. fusion of 2 gametes produce a new diploid individual |
front 106 evolution occurs when | back 106 frequencies change in a population (mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, non-random mating) - if any of these don't happen, then evolution is not occurring |
front 107 gene pool | back 107 pool alleles in entire population to give allele frequencies |
front 108 expected | back 108 random and unbiased result |
front 109 reproduction by itself... | back 109 will not change the genotype or allele frequency in a population |
front 110 how do you tell if a locus is evolving? | back 110 - sample, observe frequencies - calculate frequencies - develop hypothesis using hardy weinburg - test hypothesis - make a conclusion (not evolve? evolving?) |
front 111 if a population is in Hardy-Weinburg Equilibrium.. | back 111 the allele frequencies have not changed between recent generations - this means the population isn't evolving |
front 112 non-random mating | back 112 the likelihood of 2 alleles being paired together is biased in some way |
front 113 assortative mating | back 113 mate chosen based on similarity or dissimilarity |
front 114 inbreeding | back 114 mate chosen based on close familial relationship |
front 115 sextual selection | back 115 particular traits are more generally more attractive to mates -- a different aspect of natural selection |
front 116 positive assortative mating | back 116 mates are selected based on one or more traits being similar ex: taller men tend to marry taller women |
front 117 negative assortative mating | back 117 mates are selected based on one or more traits being dissimilar -MHC genes make molecules that enable the immune system to recognize invaders more variability in alleles appears to increase immunity |
front 118 inbreeding | back 118 means mates are more likely to have the same alleles at locus - increases the likelihood of homozygosity for each locus - at least some loci probably have recessive deleterious allele - increases number of homozygous recessive deleterious alleles (reduces fitness) |
front 119 inbreeding depression results in | back 119 self fertilization which is not as efficient in terms of fitness |
front 120 self fertilization | back 120 the most extreme form of inbreeding -- not efficient |
front 121 sexual selection | back 121 occurs when individuals differ in their ability to obtain mates based on phenotype a sub-category of natural selection - differences are heritable traits increasing reproduction and frequency - matings are non-random but all phenotypes reproduce equally MALES ARE SHOWIER THAN FEMALES |
front 122 increased mating success from... | back 122 fitness but is not necessarily improved adaptation to enviornment -- if fitness increases, the frequency would not increase |
front 123 sexual dimorphism | back 123 differences in the phenotype of sexes (due to sexual selection) - women invest more energy into gametes compared to males with sperm ( this causes women to be more "picky" with their mate) - dimorphic species -- males are usually larger and showier |
front 124 intersexual selection | back 124 females chose mates on the basis of physical characteristics that signal male genetic quality and resources or parental care are provided |
front 125 intrasexual selection | back 125 males v males |
front 126 sexual selections can cause... | back 126 violations of hardy weinburg equilibrium |
front 127 evolution without natural selection | back 127 - genetic drift - gene flow - mutations |
front 128 genetic drift | back 128 change in gene frequency due to change (o ne generation by chance decreases) - not due to particular traits in the individuals that survive and reproduce - this can lead to a sampling error |
front 129 sampling error occurs due to | back 129 change of death chance failures in reproduction chance distribution of alleles in gametes |
front 130 fixation | back 130 chance losses of a few allele copies can have large effects in small population including complete loss of an allele |
front 131 bottleneck effect | back 131 population that temporarily drops in size are likely to experience drift only a small number in population survive |
front 132 founder effect | back 132 drift can also occur when a small group finds a new population - results from a low chance that the new group will have the same allele frequencies as the original populations natural selection favors a good frequency |
front 133 gene flow | back 133 movement of alleles from one population to another - brings in new alleles - involves moving between populations and migrating individuals to have the same allele frequencies |
front 134 gene flow can also occur between species | back 134 - between sexual species by hybridization - through gene transfer, especially involving bacterial species - movement of DNA from one organism to another - new DNA incorporated into genome to recipient |
front 135 genetic variation | back 135 mutation-- starts --- natural selection acts on if a mutation has a greater fitness |
front 136 mutations | back 136 evolutionary change requires new genetic variation (ARE RANDOM) - the ultimate source of variation - increase genetic makeup - most mutations that affect fitness are deleterious |
front 137 results from damage to DNA or faulty replication | back 137 - single-locus mutations - gene duplications - gene deletions |
front 138 if most mutations are deleterious, why does fitness normally improve over the long run | back 138 - only beneficial mutations are favored by selection - many beneficial mutations eventually occur and are selected for |
front 139 hybridization | back 139 2 single strands of DNA or RNA combine to create a double-stranded molecule |
front 140 heterozygote advantage | back 140 occurs when the heterozygote has the highest fitness ( 2 favored alleles) - this helps maintain allelic diversity even when one homozygote experiences significant fitness cost |
front 141 sickle cell allele | back 141 restricts evolution - due to a single point mutation a B-globin of hemoglobin mutant B-globin can cause "sticky molecules in law O2 conditions |
front 142 sickle-cell disease | back 142 sticky hemoglobin causes red blood cells to get twisted into sickle shapes. causing deformation - blocks capillaries, causing pain, tissue damage, death |
front 143 plasmodium life cycle | back 143 complex life cycle - one stage infects RBCs by multiplying and triggering sickling - immune cells destroy sickle cells - HbB/HbB individuals are more strongly affected by malaria - HbB/HbS individuals, plasmodia trigger sickling |
front 144 limitations on evolution | back 144 evolution does not result in perfectly adapted organisms - populations can only be fit enough to survive in their environment - more fit than competing populations to persist over time |
front 145 genetic constraints | back 145 evolution requires genetic changes, but there may be - limited genetic variation - genetic correlations among traits-- influence multiple traits and change one trait then you change others |
front 146 historical constraints | back 146 - selection acts on existing characters - new traits much evolve from old ones |
front 147 chemical/ physical traits | back 147 basic physical laws place limits on - rate and nature of biochemical processes - physical characteristics of biological materials |
front 148 trade-offs | back 148 - biological materials, energy, time is limited - allocating for more, for one thing, means less for another (cant do everything at once) |
front 149 variable selective conditions | back 149 changing environments cause inconsistent patterns of selection ex: leaf bud growth timing (can be early/late may be advantageous) adaptations cant perfectly "track" changing conditions |