For a cell to function correctly what must there be

the correct amount of DNA

True or false. sex and gender are the same thing

false they are seperate

What is nondisjunction?

when two chromosomes are not properly separated during
metaphase. (could be in meiosis I or II)

What are the two common examples of viable autosomal nondisjunction

trisomy 21 - down syndrome

trisomy 18 - Edwards syndrome

What are autosomes?

They are chromosomes 1-22 and have nothing to do with sex determination

What is homogenization?

Physically breaks apart cell membrane, salt removes water from DNA.

-blending strawberries with detergent)

When does DNA replicate?

During the S phase of interphase in cell division

Why was strawberries used in the experiment to extract DNA?

Because it has a lot of DNA making the chromosomes visible to the naked eye.

What stain is used to determine the presence of Y chromosomes?

Acridine orange

How does a nonviable syndrome occur?

0Y

How does jacob's syndrome occur?

XYY

What is the gamete for Klinfelter's syndrome?

XXY (male) - 1 barr body

What is the gamete for Turner's syndrome?

0X (female) - no barr bodies

What does DNA stand for?

Deoxyribonucleic acid

True or false. DNA is found in all living cells?

True

What is the shape of DNA?

A double helix

Where is DNA found in the cell?

The nucleus and mitochondria

What is the role of DNA?

It encodes for all cellular protein (genetic information)

What deproteinization?

Stripping histones away from DNA

-This is stripping histones away from DNA

What is precipitation?

Precipitation is making DNA insoluble so it comes out of solution and can be isolated

-Adding alcohol

DNA is composed of what?

Nucleotides

Nucleotides are made up of what?

sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogen base

The nitrogenius bases are held together by what?

hydrogen bonds

The sugar phosphate backbone is held together by what?

covalent bonds

What are the 2 purines?

Adenine and guanine (2 rings)

What are the 2 pyrimidines?

Thymine and cytosine (1 ring)

What is Chargaffs rule?

A and T pair

G and C pair

Why will DNA look different on each strand?

Because it is antiparallel

What does helicase do?

It unzips the DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases

What do single-strand binding proteins do?

They keep the two strands of DNA from pairing back together

What does primase do?

It lays down the RNA primer

What does DNA polymerase do?

It synthesizes the new DNA strand. (the main enzyme)

What are the 3 things DNA polymerase needs to work?

1. the parent strand

2. RNA primer

3. free nucleotides

DNA polymerase reads in what direction?

3' to 5' direction and it synthesizes in the 5' to 3' direction

Where does the DNA lagging strand start?

In many places causing Okazaki fragments

What does DNA polymerase I do?

the RNA primer is replaced with DNA in both the leading and lagging strands

What does ligase do?

It glues Okazaki fragments together (bonds them)

Compare DNA and RNA

DNA - ATCG, double stranded, and deoxyribose

RNA - AUCG, single stranded, and just a ribose

What are the steps of DNA replication?

DNA - RNA - Protein

What is the process of transcription?

Going from DNA to RNA.

mRNA carries the message from the nucleus to the cytoplasm

What are the 3 steps of transcription?

1. Initiation - RNA polymerase binds and unwinds DNA

2. Elongation - 1 side of DNA is called the coding strand (5' to 3')

3. Termination - the end of transcription

What is the process of translation?

Going from mRNA to protein. In the ribosomes with codons

What are codons?

A group of 3 amino acids

What are the start codons?

AUG - to start protein synthesis

What are the end codons?

UAA, UAG, UGA

What are the degenerate?

When more than one codon can code for the same amino acid

For RNA what base pair is substituted? And what is responsible for this?

U (uracil) for T

RNA polymerase is responsible for this

Leading vs lagging strand?

Leading - 3' to 5'

Lagging - 5' to 3'

What are the four nitrogenous bases of DNA?

adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine

What is evolution?

It is the change in a populations allelic frequency over time?

What is a mendelian population?

Sexual reproducing individuals that are able to interbreed.

What is a gene pool?

a set of genes within a population

What is the Hardy-Weinberg law?

If certain conditions are met, then allelic frequencies in a population will not change form generation to generation.

What is a genetic drift?

When allelic frequencies change with time in small populations.

What is gene flow?

When alleles move from the gene pool of one population to the gene pool of another.

What is a gene?

a coding for a particular trait

What is an allele?

different variations of a gene

What is a genotype?

genetic make-up, alleles present on your chromosome

What is a phenotype?

the visual characteristics that are being expressed

What is homozygous?

Having the same allele for a gene (AA or aa)

What is heterozygous?

Having a different allele for a gene (Aa)

The dominant will be expressed

What is homozygous dominant?

Having the same dominant allele (AA

What is homozygous recessive?

Having the same recessive allele (aa)

Hardy-Weinberg Law only occurs when?

when the population is not evolving

What are the 5 assumptions of the Hardy-Weinberg Law?

1. No specific selection (natural selection)

2. No mutations

3. No migration (gene flow)

4. Large population

5. Random mating

What will happen is one of these conditions is not met?

microevolution

True or false the Hardy-Weinberg Law can determine how far off populations are.

true

What is the allelic frequency formula?

P+q=1

What does p represent?

The frequency of the dominant allele

What does q represent?

The frequency of the recessive allele

What is the genotypic frequency formula?

P^2+2pq+q^2=1

What does p^2 represent?

frequency of homozygous dominant

What does q^2 represent?

frequency of homozygous recessive

What does pq2 represent?

frequency of heterozygous

What is the founder affect?

When a small group breaks off from a large population and becomes isolated.

Compare prokaryotes and eukaryotes

prokaryotes- DNA is circular, no membrane-bound nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles

eukaryotes- membrane-bound nucleus, linear chromosomes, contain organelles, 10x larger than prokaryotic cells

What is the taxonomic hierarchy? (biggest to smallest)

Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

What is the acronym for the taxonomic heircarhy?

Do koalas prefer chocolate or fruit, generally speaking?

How do you classify bacteria?

Using grams stain

What are the 3 domain?

Prokaryotes - Bacteria and archaea

Eukaryotes - Eukarya

Homo sapien - what is the species and genus name

genus -Homo

species - sapien

What are some characteristics of domain archea?

Found in extreme environments (extremophiles), no peptidoglycan, more related to domain eukarya

What are some examples of extremophiles?

Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermoacidophiles

What are methanogens?

Methane makers, in cow guts or swamps

-obligate anaerobes

What are halophiles?

Salt lovers, uses lights- carotenoids(red pigment), in the dead sea

-the simplest form of photophosphorylation and its color is due to bacteriorhodopsin.

What are thermoacidophiles?

low pH and high temp lovers, in hot springs or volcanoes

Characteristic of domain bacteria

Most have either a lot or a little peptidoglycan in the cell wall

What are the 2 groups bacteria can be classified in?

gram positive or negative

Which gram test is harder to treat?

Gram negative because of the outer membrane

What does gram positive or gram negative mean?

Gram negative: very little peptidoglycan in the cell wall, has LPS, and it stains pink/red

Gram positive: a lot of peptidoglycan in its cell wall and stains violet (purple)

What are some characteristics of bacteria?

have ribosomes, capsule(protective outside layer), pilli, flagella

What color does gram positive stain?

Violet (purple)

What are the steps of a grams test?

1. Adding crystal violet to slide

2. Add iodine to bind with crystal violet

3. Add alcohol wash to help decolorize

4. Add counterstain (safranin) to show gram positive or negative

What is the zone of inhibition?

The area in a disc where there is not any visible bacteria.

What is cyanobacteria and where is it located?

A unique type of photosynthetic prokaryote that contains chlorophylllla. It is found in the thylakoid membranes.

What shapes do bacteria come in?

round(cocci), rod-shaped(bacilli), and spiral(spirilla)

What are the 3 bacterial arrangements?

-Staphylo – clusters
-Strepto – chains
-Diplo – pairs

What is the flagella for in domain bacteria?

for movement

What is positive/negative chemotaxis

movement in response to chemicals

What is positive/negative phototaxis

movement in response to light

How do bacteria replicate?

binary fission only

What are the main sources of variation in bacteria?

mutations

What are the 3 ways of genetic recombination in bacteria?

1. Bacteria transformation

2. Bacteria transduction

3. Bacteria conjugation

What is bacteria transformation?

Process of taking in DNA from the external environment. Usually form other bacteria. (a plasmid)

What is bacteria conjugation?

Transfer of DNA using the pilus between two bacterial cells which are temporarily joined

What is bacteria transdcution?

Transfer of DNA between prokaryotes by viruses.

-Uses bacteriophages which are viruses that affect bacteria

What are saprobes?

they feed on dead stuff

What are endospores?

Cells that can withstand harsh environments

What is a plasmid?

Self-replicating circular chromosomes are not associated with the bacteria's normal chromosome. They also help with genetic recombination.

Most bacteria are what?

Heterotrophic - cannot make their own food

What is a photoautotroph (mode of nutrition)?

Energy source - light

Carbon source - CO2

What is a chemoautotroph (mode of nutrition)?

Energy source - oxidation of inorganic chemicals

Carbon source - CO2

What is a photoheterotroph (mode of nutrition)?

Energy source - light

Carbon source - Organic compounds

What is a chemoheterotroph? (most of bacteria are this)

Energy source - Organic compounds

Carbon source -Organic compounds

What is a obligate aerobe?

Requires oxygen (most of bacteria are this)

What is a facultative anaerobe?

Can grow with or without oxygen but grows faster with it

What is a obligate anaerobe?

Poisoned by oxygen. must have no oxygen to grow.

What is symbosis? What are the types?

Ecological relationship between different species in direct contact with each other.

-Mutalism, commmensalism, parasitism, and Ammensalism

What is mutalism?

Both species are benefited. Flower and bee

What is commensalism

One species benefits and one is not affected. Fish and smaller fish

What is parasitism?

One species and benefited and one is harmed. Human and mosquito

What is ammensalism?

One species is negatively affected and one is not affected. Algae and fish

What is the technical name for the species level?

epithet

What does Kingdom Monera mean?

single kingdom

What are the the domains of kingdom Monera?

Archaea and bacteria

What are some characteristics of domain bacteria?

They have no peptidoglycan, they also have a unique lipid construction in their plasma membrane.

Arachea is more closely related to what domain?

eukaryotes

The affect of spices on bacteria growth.

Nothing grows on clove

What are the 4 kingdoms in eukaryotes?

plantae, fungi, protista, and animalia

What are the groupings of domain bacteria?

1. kingdom proteobacteria

2. kingdom chlamydia

3. kingdom spirochetes

4. kingdom cyanobacteria

5. kingdom gram positive bacteria

What is the difference between disinfectant and antiseptic?

Disinfectant - lyses most cells and is used on non living surfaces, ex: lysol wipes

Antiseptic - prohibits growth on some cells and is used on living tissue. ex: rubbing alcohol

Do hardy Weinberg practice problems, know the pictures and know the domains

kk