Instructions for Side by Side Printing
- Print the notecards
- Fold each page in half along the solid vertical line
- Cut out the notecards by cutting along each horizontal dotted line
- Optional: Glue, tape or staple the ends of each notecard together
Biology Exam 3
front 1 What are the 3 stages of cell signaling? Where do they occur? | back 1 1. Signal reception (signal is detected) - outside the cell 2. Signal transduction (amplifies signal)- inside the cell 3. Cellular response - (triggers a response) inside the cell (cytoplasm/nucleus) |
front 2 What are some types of local signaling(direct contact)? | back 2 Paracrine and synaptic (when a neurotransmitter is released) Both occur in animals |
front 3 What is a type of long distance signaling? | back 3 Endocrine (hormonal) |
front 4 Plasmodesmata occur in what organisms? | back 4 Plants |
front 5 Cell-surface molecules are in what organism? | back 5 animal |
front 6 Gap junctions occur in what organism? | back 6 animals |
front 7 What is reception in cell signaling? | back 7 When a signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein causing it to change its shape. |
front 8 Where are most signal receptors found? | back 8 In the plasma membrane proteins or inside the cell |
front 9 The binding between a signal molecule(ligand) and receptor is what? | back 9 very specific |
front 10 What does GDP do to receptors? | back 10 turns them off |
front 11 What does GTP do to receptors? | back 11 turns it on (active) |
front 12 What are GCPRs? | back 12 They are the largest family of receptors and the G stands for guanosine |
front 13 What are the 3 main cell receptors? | back 13 GPCR's, RTK's, and Ion channel receptors |
front 14 What does a GPCR do? | back 14 A receptor that works with a G protein to bind with GTP (similar to ATP) |
front 15 What does GTP stand for? | back 15 guanosine triphosphate |
front 16 What is a ligand? | back 16 It is what binds to signaling molecules |
front 17 What makes RTK's different different from GPCR's? | back 17 They can signal multiple pathways at once |
front 18 True or false. Ligands bind with RTK's. | back 18 True |
front 19 What does a RTK do? | back 19 It speeds up the phosphate transfer process from ATP to another protein(tyrosine kinase) |
front 20 What do Ion channel receptors do? | back 20 Act as a gate and opens/closes when a ligand changes it shape to allow specific ions through. (Ions like Na and Ca) |
front 21 What is a intracellular receptor? | back 21 Proteins that are found in the cytoplasm or nucleus of target cells. |
front 22 What does transduction mean in cell signaling? | back 22 molecular interactions transmit signals from receptors to relay molecules in a cell |
front 23 What is protein phosphorylation? | back 23 When protein kinases transfer phosphate from ATP to protein |
front 24 What is protein dephosphorylation? | back 24 When protein phosphatases remove phosphates from proteins |
front 25 What does adenylyl cyclase do? | back 25 It is an enzyme that converts ATP to cAMP in response to a extracellular signal. |
front 26 What is Cyclic AMP (cAMP)? | back 26 Small molecules that are produced from ATP and is a second messenger. |
front 27 What are second messengers? | back 27 Small, non protein, water soluble molecules that spread throughout the cell using diffusion. Specifically GPCRs and RTKs) |
front 28 What are some types of second messengers? | back 28 Cyclic AMP (produced from ATP) and calcium ions |
front 29 Were does the cellular response occur? | back 29 In the nucleus or cytoplasm |
front 30 What happens during apoptosis? | back 30 Cells shrink and form lobes, which are eventually shed as membrane fragments |
front 31 What is programmed cell death? | back 31 When infected or damaged cells die and it prevents enzymes from leaking out the dying cell and damaging neighboring cells. |
front 32 What are the stages of cell division (IPpMAT)? Know the picture | back 32  Interphase, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase |
front 33 The continuity of life is based on what? | back 33 cell division |
front 34 What distinguishes living from non living things? | back 34 The ability of organisms to produce more of their own kind. |
front 35 What is a genome? | back 35 All the DNA in a cell. (2 meters long) |
front 36 What is chromotin? | back 36 They are condensed chromosomes |
front 37 Somatic vs gametes | back 37 Somatic: non reproductive cells that have 46 chromosomes (asexual) - mitosis Gametes: reproductive cells that have 23 chromosomes (sexual) - meiosis |
front 38 Where can DNA be found? | back 38 the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplast |
front 39 What is chromatin? | back 39 Condensed chromosomes |
front 40 What are sister chromatids? | back 40 two identically joined copies of the original chromosomes |
front 41 What are centromeres? | back 41 The waist or the part where the two sister chromatids attach. |
front 42 What are centrioles? | back 42 they are tubular structures that help with cell division and mobility |
front 43 What are centrosomes? | back 43 where the microtubules come from (organizing center) |
front 44 What are chromatids called when they seperate? | back 44 chromosomes |
front 45 What is mitosis? | back 45 the division of genetic material in the nucleus |
front 46 What is cytokinesis? | back 46 The division of the cytoplasm |
front 47 What are the stages of interphase and explain them? | back 47 G1- growth phase S phase- DNA is replicated, sister chromatids form G2- second growth phase, protein synthesis 90% of cell cycle happens here |
front 48 What happens in prophase? | back 48 Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, nuclear envelope breaks down, centrosomes move to poles |
front 49 What happens in prometaphase? | back 49 Chromosomes continue to condense, kinetochores appear, microtubules attach to kinetochores |
front 50 What happens during metaphase? | back 50 Chromosomes line in the middle, sister chromatids attach to spindle fibers |
front 51 What happens in anaphase? | back 51 Centromeres split in 2, sister chromatids split and are now called chromosomes, spindle fibers begin to elongate. |
front 52 What happens in telophase/cytokinesis? | back 52 nuclear envelop forms, miotic speindle breaks down, 2 identical daughter cells begin to form. |
front 53 Kinetechore vs non-kinetechore | back 53 Kinetochores- "walk" the chromosomes to one pole Non-kinetochores- elongate the whole cell during anaphase |
front 54 What is a miotic spindle? | back 54 fibers made of microtubules that pull chromosomes to middle of cell |
front 55 What forms after cell division in animals? | back 55 a cleavage furrow |
front 56 What forms after cell division in plants? | back 56 a cell plate |
front 57 What is a cell cycle control system? | back 57 How the cell cycle is directed. It is regulated by internal and external controls |
front 58 What are checkpoints in the cell cycle control system? | back 58 It is where the cell cycle stops until the go-ahead signal is received. |
front 59 What are the 2 regulatory proteins that are involved in the checkpoints? | back 59 Cyclins and Cdks(proteins) Cdks have to be attached to cyclins to be active |
front 60 What is MPF (m-phase promoting factor)? | back 60 Triggers the cell past the G2 checkpoint and into M-phase |
front 61 What do growth factors do? | back 61 They are released by certain cells to stimulate other cells to divide |
front 62 Explain how cancer cells grow and divide? | back 62 They don't need normal signals or growth factors to grow and divide. |
front 63 What is binary fusion in bacteria? | back 63 When chromones replicate, and the two daughter chromosomes actively move apart, lastly, the plasma membrane pinches inward, dividing the cell into two. |
front 64 What are homologous chromosomes? | back 64 Chromosomes paired in somatic cells |
front 65 Diploid vs haploid cells | back 65 Diploid(2n)- somatic cells that have two types of each chromosome Haploid(n)- gametes have only on set of chromosomes |
front 66 How many homologous chromosomes do humans have? How many chromatids? | back 66 23 pairs of chromosomes and 92 chromatids |
front 67 What is a kartotype? | back 67 An arrangement of chromsomes |
front 68 What is the fusion of gametes called? | back 68 fertilization |
front 69 What type of chromosomes do females have? | back 69 XX |
front 70 What type of chromosomes do males have? | back 70 XY |
front 71 What is the life cycle? | back 71 The generation to generation of stages in a reproductive history of an organism |
front 72 What experiences alternation of generations? | back 72 plants and some algae |
front 73 What stages do fungi and protist go through? | back 73 They only go through single celled zygote and not multicellular diploid. |
front 74 True or false. Only diploid cells can undergo meiosis? | back 74 True |
front 75 What are the phases of meiosis? | back 75 Meiosis I and meiosis II |
front 76 Where does crossing over occur in meiosis? | back 76 In prophase I. between non sister chromatids and homologous chromosomes. |
front 77 Meiosis I | back 77  homologous chromosomes separate |
front 78 Meiosis II | back 78  sister chromatids separate |
front 79 What does meiosis start and end with? What does mitosis start and end with? | back 79 Meiosis- start (1) diploid, end (4) haploid Mitosis- start diploid, end diploid |
front 80 What is independent assortment? | back 80 the possibility of different combinations of parental chromosomes |
front 81 What 3 mechanisms contribute to genetic variation? | back 81 1. Independent assortment of chromosomes 2. Crossing over 3. random fertilization |
front 82 What is a character? | back 82 A heritable feature that varies among individuals ex: flower color |
front 83 What is a trait? | back 83 Each variant for a character ex: purple/yellow |
front 84 What are the female organs of a flower? | back 84 Carpel |
front 85 What are the male organs of a flower? | back 85 Stamen |
front 86 What did Mendel discover? | back 86 The laws of inheritance |
front 87 What is a dominant trait? | back 87 Capital letter - R overpowers recessive |
front 88 What is a recessive trait? | back 88 lower case letter - r |
front 89 What was Mendel's first law? | back 89 alternative versions of genes (alleles) account for variations in inherited characters |
front 90 What was Mendel's second law? | back 90 for each character (example flower color), an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent |
front 91 What was Mendel's third law? | back 91 if the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (the dominant allele) determines the organism’s appearance, and the other (the recessive allele) has no noticeable effect on appearance |
front 92 What was Mendel's fourth law? | back 92 The law of segregation the two alleles for a heritable character separate
(segregate) |
front 93 What is a phenotype? | back 93 physical appearance of an organism |
front 94 What is a genotype? | back 94 genetic appearance of an organism |
front 95 Creating a punnet square is doing what? | back 95 testcrossing |
front 96 Law of independent assortment? | back 96 each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation. Gene's located near each other tend to be inherited together |
front 97 Know how to do punnet squares and the multiplication product rule | back 97 no data |
front 98 What is complete dominance? | back 98 When phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical |
front 99 What is incomplete dominance? | back 99 confirms that alleles are genes that are discrete and not blendable |
front 100 What is codominance? | back 100 two dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways |
front 101 What is pleitrophy? | back 101 When one gene affects multiple traits. ex: sickle cell |
front 102 What is epistatic mean? | back 102 A gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus |
front 103 What is a polygenic inheritance? | back 103 multiple genes affecting one phenotype. ex: skin color and height in humans |
front 104 What is pedigree? | back 104 a family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across generations. can also be used to make predictions |
front 105 What are some genetic disorders or dieases? | back 105 Cystic fibrosis, sickle cell, dwarfism, and Huntington's disease |
front 106 What is chromosomal theory of inheritance? And who/what did they work with? | back 106 genes are found at specific locations on chromosomes. (Law od inheritance) Thomas morgan hunt - fruit flies |
front 107 What is larger X or Y chromosomes? | back 107 X are larger while Y are smaller |
front 108 What are sex linked genes? | back 108 A gene that is located on either sex chromosomes. Y and X linked genes |
front 109 What is the gene on the Y chromosome called? | back 109 SRY - Sex determining region on the Y (Y linked) |
front 110 Are X or Y genes more related to sex determination? | back 110 Y linked genes |
front 111 What are some disorders that are caused by recessive alleles? | back 111 Color blindness (X linked), hemophilia, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy |
front 112 True or false. Almost all of the X chromosomes becomes inactive in early embryonic development. | back 112 True |
front 113 What do inactive X chromosomes do and when do they reactivate? | back 113 X condenses into a Barr body and is reactivated in cells that give rise to eggs after meiosis. |
front 114 What are linked genes? | back 114 Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together |
front 115 Parental vs recombinant types? | back 115 Parental - Offspring with a phenotype matching one of Recombinant- Offspring with nonparental phenotypes |
front 116 What is a genetic map? | back 116 an ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome |
front 117 What is a linkage map? | back 117 a genetic map of a chromosome based on recombination frequencies |
front 118 What is Aneuploidy? | back 118 results from the fertilization of gametes in which nondisjunction occurred |
front 119 What is Polyploidy? | back 119 a condition in which an organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes. (It is common in plants not animals) |
front 120 What causes human disorders? | back 120 Alterations of chromosomal number and structure |
front 121 What are some examples of alterations of chromosome number? | back 121 Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and turner syndrome |
front 122 How does down syndrome occur? | back 122 When there are 3 copies of chromosome 21 |
front 123 How does Klinefelter syndrome occur? | back 123 the result of an extra chromosome in a male (XXY) |
front 124 How does turner syndrome occur? | back 124 Produces X0 female chromosomes (sterile) |
front 125 What is genomic imprinting? | back 125 the silencing of certain genes depending on which parent passes them on |
front 126 How does linkage of genes and crossing over affect inheritance? | back 126 Linkage helps keep genes in a chromosome together and crossing over facilitates the separation of genes. |
front 127 What are transcription factors? | back 127 They are proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to nearby DNA by target genes. |
front 128 Why is it important that the nuclear membrane disappears during cell division? | back 128 To facilitate spindle fibers and get the mitosis part of cell division started. |
front 129 What are histones? | back 129 They are groups of proteins found in chromatin and are condensed. They are important in the packing of DNA and help regulate genes. |
front 130 What would be the genotypes of an individuals used in true-breeding? | back 130 Homozygous |
front 131 What will be the genotype of the individual used for a test cross? | back 131 It is between an individual with an unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive genotype |