Biology Exam #2 Flashcards

A head: glycerol + phosphate

Tails: 2 fatty acids

Water-loving

Water-fearing

To stiffen the cell membrane and make it more rigid

Embedded; span membrane

Loosely associated with the outer or inner surface

Sugars associated with the outside of the membrane; face extracellular environment

Cell-to-Cell Adhesion/recognition

Movement of substances from high to low

Down Concentration Gradient

small, hydrophobic

EXAMPLE: gases/lipids

diffusion of H2O through a membrane from an area of low solute (high H2O) to an area of high solute (high H2O).

relative solute concentration of two solutes

Low solutes; cell will swell and explode

High solutes; cell will shrivel (CRENATION)

Same solutes: cell will maintain a healthy shape

Cell membrane withdraws from the cell wall

H20 pushing outward against cell wall (Hypotonic)

DO NOT BURST

Passive transport aided by integral membrane proteins

integral membrane protein with a passageway for substances to pass (do not change shape)

EXAMPLE: substances that cannot penetrate the bilayer (charged atoms)

Integral membrane proteins that can change shape

EXAMPLES: sugars; amino acids

Substance binds carrier; carrier changes shape; substance exposed to inside of the cell (continues to equilibrium

Movement of a substance through a membrane from an area of LOW concentration to HIGH concentration (uphill)

Requires energy; requires integral membrane protein

1/3 of your energy is needed to run pumps!

uptake of molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane

"cell eating" LARGE particles

Extensions of the cytoplasm surround the particle to form a vesicle

"cell drinking" INVAGINATION

NO psuedopods; membrane pinches to form a vesicle

Substance first binds to a membrane protein receptor

highly selective (LDL: Bad Cholesterol)

move substances out; secretion of large molecules from the cell by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane

secretory pathway

ACTIVE transport

total of all chemical reactions in a cell

building reactions (monomers to polymers)

require energy

break down (polymers to momomers)

release energy

requires energy (monkey climbing)

releases energy (monkey dropping coconut)

Cells couple energy releasing reactions to energy consuming reactions

exergonic

release of energy with mechanical energy

Add water to cleave off last phosphate

endergonic reactions

ATP------> ADP + P +Energy

catalysts; speed up reactions

ACTIVATION ENERGY

Groove or fold in enzyme where substrate binds

Both enzyme and substrate change their shape

enzyme is saturated and rates level off (Plateau)

transfer of electrons from one reactant to another

during catabolism of bonds of food; electrons are released

Fuel e- +Y------> product + Ye-

Y becomes reduced

gained electron

Break down of bonds of our food and release electrons and put them on O2 (final electron acceptor)

C6H12O6 + 6O2-----------> CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Occurs in cytosol

Conversion of glucose to 2 pyruvates

e- are not directly added to oxygen

e- are added to NAD (intermediate electron acceptor) to make NADH

ATP produced by substrate level phosphorylation (2 ATP)

Products: 2 ATP, 2 Pyruvates, 2 NADH

Occurs in matrix of mitochondria

Conversion of 2 pyruvates to acetyl CoA (2)

electrons released from pyruvate during oxidation are added to NAD

No ATP is produced

Products are: 2 NADH, 2 Co2, 2 Acetyl CoA

Occurs in matrix of the mitochondria

Conversion of 2 acetyl CoA to CO2

Electrons are added to NAD and FAD

ATP is produced by substrate level phosphorylation

Occurs on CRISTAE: folds of inner membrane of mitochondria

series of electron carriers in the cristae; e- from NADH + FADH2 that were generated in the Kreb's cycle, pyruvate oxidation, and glycolysis are added to the e- carriers here

30-32 ATP

how electron transport and energy release by the electron transport chain is coupled to ATP formation

1.) electrons pass down the ETC to o2 to form water

2.) this causes H+ ions to be pumped from the matrix of the mitochondria to the intermembrane space. Hydrogen ions accumulate here.

3.) Chemiosmosis----> H+ move down their concentration gradient through ATP synthase, a protein complex in the inner membrane that acts as a "water wheel" or a molecular rotary engine. When it spins, this activates catalytic sites on ATP synthase that bind ADP and P to form ATP

regenerate NAD that can be used in glycolysis for ATP production

body cell; all cells in body except for eggs and sperm

Picture of chromosomes

2 sets of chromosomes (somatic cells)

same length, centromere position, and carry genes controlling the same traits

One kind of chromosome (1 set)

Reduces Chromosome number; occurs in the gonads; starts with diploid germline cell

Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear

centrioles separate and spindle fibers form

chromosomes condense

homologous chromosomes pair up (SYNAPSIS)

Individual chromosomes that carry information from both parents

source of genetic variation

Chromatid breaks and exchanges with nonsister chromatid

Homologous pairs line up on the equator

homologous chromosomes separate

nuclear membrane reforms

spindle fibers disappear

DNA uncoil

2 haploid cells; reduction division

diploid into haploid

NO DNA REPLICATION

Typical prophase events

chromosomes line up on the equator

Split centromeres and go to opposite poles

Typical telophase events; cell splits by means of cytokinesis

4 HAPLOID cells

Independent orientation of homologous chromosomes at equator in metaphase 1

Following of one trait (height)

Plants that produce offspring of the same variety when they self-pollinate

unit of heredity that is transferred or passed down from a parent to their offspring and determines some characteristics of that offspring

alternate versions of a gene on the same locus

Genetic traits; set of genes in DNA responsible for a trait

Physical traits; physical expression of a gene

Same: homo

Different: hetero

ALWAYS shows up in an organism; captial representation; "stronger" gene

"hidden" when the dominant allele is present; "weaker" gene represented by a lowercase letter

Parent Generation

Generation resulting immediately from a cross of the P1 generation

Offspring from the interbreeding of F1 generation

Used to determine if a group exhibiting a dominant trait is heterozygous or homozygous

The two alleles for a heritable characteristic separate during the formation of gametes in meiosis and end up in different gametes at the end

heterozygous for 2 characteristics

Each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation if the genes are located on different chromosomes

Not all alleles are fully dominant or recessive

Heterozygous individual: phenotype is intermediate between the parents

genes with more than two alleles in the population

example: blood type

IA ------> A antigen

IB-------> B antigen

i----------> no antigen

one gene has multiple affects on phenotype

example: sickle cell allele

Many genes- One trait

Few phenotypes result from one gene

Examples: hair color; skin tone; height

Traits that depend on multiple genes combined with environmental influences

SRY Gene (sex determining region on the Y chromosome) triggers the development of testes

Males