Human Anatomy & Physiology: final exam Flashcards

In mitosis two identical sets of daughter nuclei, -46

Meiosis number of chromosomes is divided into half- 23

germ cells produce -->> primordial germ cell (PGC),-->>> mitosis, forming oogonia. oogenesis, the oogonia -->> primary oocytes.--->> SECONDARY

interphase before meiosis I,

synapsis before the first meiotic division.

meiosis II, the two daughter cells go through a second division to yield four cells containing a unique set of 23 single chromosomes into four sperm cells.

Filtration
As blood courses through the glomeruli, soaks out of the blood through the membranes (by osmosis and diffusion) filtered flows into the Bowman's capsule.

Reabsorption ( peritubular copillaries). reabsorbed are water, glucose and other nutrients, and sodium (Na+) ions
Secretion
secretion is reabsorption in reverse. secretion moves substances out of the blood and into the tubules converted into urine.

1-Glomerulus and Bowman's capsule:
2-Proximal tubule:
3-Descending limb of loop of henle:
4-Ascending limb of loop of henle:
5-Distal tubule: blood into nephron
6-Collecting Duct:

Extracellular fluids sodium, calcium, chloride and bicarbonate ions

Intracellular fluids potassium, magnesium, phosphate, and sulfate ions

alkalosis pH above

acidosis pH below

Respiratory alkalosis isn’t enough carbon diox ide

• hyperventilation, which commonly occurs with anxiety

Respiratory Acidosis too much CO2

• chronic airway conditions, like asthma
• injury to the chest

7.35 to 7.45

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

INVERSELY RELATED TO PRESSURE

EQUAL IN / EQUAL OUT

Total pressure=partial pressure gases

AMYLASE - a carbohydrase - an enzyme that breaks down starch into glucose

gastrin is secreted by the stomach cells to regulate the production of gastric juices.

PEPSIN Pepsin is an enzyme used to partially hydrolyze protein. Pepsin is released in an inactive form Pepsinogen.

pepsinogen reacts with HCl to form pepsin

cholecystokinin -a polypeptide hormone secreted in the small intestine,

stimulates gallbladder contraction and secretion of pancreatic enzymes.

Trypsin and Chymotrypsin are enzymes that break bonds next to specific amino acids

breaks proteins into amino acids in the DUODENUM

Formation of urine Blood leaves the heart via the aorta and enters the renal artery where it flows into the interlobar arteries. From there it branches off to the arcuate artery, which curves along the outer edge of the pyramids. From the arcuate artery, blood flows to the cortical radiate arteries then into the afferent arteriole. From the afferent arteriole, it goes into the : glomerulus for filtering.

ADH- DCT DISTAL CONVELATED TUBE

all waste goes to the proximal convoluted tubule, while blood that will stay in the body goes to the efferent arteriole. More blood filtering takes place in the peritubular capillaries. Blood that will stay in the body exits through the cortical radiate veins, then goes into the arcuate vein, then into the interlobar vein, then the renal vein, then back to the heart via the inferior vena cava.

At the same time this is happening, the waste that was sent to the proximal convoluted tubule travels down the descending loop of henle, then up the ascending loop of henle to the distal convoluted tubule where it is dumped into the collecting duct. From the collecting duct, it goes into the ureters, travels to the bladder, and then leaves the body via the urethra.

A corticosteroid hormone that stimulates absorption of sodium by the kidneys and so regulates water and salt balance (LH/ FSH)

An enzyme secreted by and stored in the kidneys that promotes the production of the protein angiotensin (juxtaglomerular apparatus)

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), (polypeptide) ANP acts to reduce the water, sodium and adipose loads on the circulatory system, thereby reducing blood pressure.

water regulator in the body.

Albuminuria-to-creatinine ratio (ACR).

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

ADH causes the DCT and collecting ducts to be more permeable to water

1. Constricts arteriolar smooth muscle, causing map to rise

2. stimulates reabsorption of Na+

Triggers adrenal cortex to release aldosterone

Aldosterone increases na+ reabsorption

3. Stimulates hypothalamus to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and activates thirst center ADH - causes water to be retained

4. Constricts efferent arterioles, decreasing capillar hydrostatic pressure and increasing fluid reabsorption

5. Causes glomerular cells to contract, decreasing surface area available for filtration

is a hormone system regulating blood pressure (BP) and fluid volume, a third major participant in this system called aldosterone. The level of activity of the renin-angiotensin system determines and is determined by the body’s BP

descending (NO SALT): impermeable to Na+, but permeable to water/ h2o reabsorbed

ascending (NO H20) - permeable to na+ but impermeable to water : na+, k+, Cl-

-H20 is highly permeable
-NaCl is highly permeable
-Glucose is highly permeable

Distal convoluted tube

Proximal convoluted tubule (pct)

The pressure helps to force liquid out of the blood.

1. Glomerular filtration

2. tubular reabsorption : primarily in the proximal tubule

3. tubular secretion : distal tubules

receive filtrate from many nephrons

principle cells of collecting ducts - help maintain water and salt balance

Glomerulus - tufts of capillaries; filtration

Bowman's capsule - enlarged, cup-shaped capsule surrounding glomerulus - collects filtrate

Proximal convoluted tubule (pct) - tubular reabsorption

Loop of henle - Sodium (Na+) and water balance

Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) - tubular secretion

Immunoreactive transformed smooth muscle cells that can contract in response to circulating vasoactive substances impeding glomerular blood flow and filtration.

Granular cells (renin)

macula densa (monitor flow rate of filtrate.)

Leaky endothelium (pores/fenestrae)

basement membrane (porous matrix of negatively charged glycoproteins)

podocytes (specialized epithelial cells with interdigitating pedicels separated by filtration slits).

Water, urea, glucose and inulin.

Albumin and hemoglobin.

Myoglobin.

sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, phosphate, bicarbonate, and hydrogen ions

ADH antidiuretic hormone, which helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidneys and urine output

oxytocin, which triggers the contractions of the uterus that occur during labor.

growth hormone, which stimulates the growth of bone and other body tissues and plays a role in the body's handling of nutrients and minerals

prolactin, which activates milk production in women who are breastfeeding

thyrotropin, which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones

corticotropin, which stimulates the adrenal gland to produce certain hormones

hormones that signal the ovaries and testes to make sex hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women.

buffers dissolved in the blood. remove excess chemicals remove H⁺ ions

increased-breathing counteract the pH-lowering effects of exercise by removing CO ₂, & pH buffer

1. Urine is made in the kidneys
2. Urine is stored in the bladder
3. The sphincter muscles relax
4. The bladder muscle (detrusor) contracts
5. The bladder is emptied through the urethra and urine is removed from the body

superior and inferior vena cava, -->>>right atrium-->> tricuspid valve --> right ventricle -->>pulmonic valve-->> pulmonary artery-->> lungs

-->> pulmonary veins -->> left atrium -->>> mitral valve-->> left ventricle -->> aortic valve -->>> aorta-->>>> body

body >> vena cava >> right atrium of the heart -->> right atrium contracts -->>pumps the blood >>> tricuspid valve >>> right ventricle.>> pulmonary artery >>> lungs -->> tiny blood vessels called capillaries ( absorb carbon dioxide from the blood and replace it with oxygen) >>> pulmonary vein >>> left atrium>> mitral valve >>>> the left ventricle -->> left side of the heart >>>>> left ventricle >>>>> aortic arch -->> body -->> carotid artery and into the brain -->> auxiliary arteries -->> arms through the aorta -->> torso and legs -->> Blood >> arteries >> capillaries >>>> veins -->> >>>>> heart.

oocyte is produced in the ovary during female gametogenesis and the first meiotic division is completed.

The second meiotic division usually stops short of completion unless fertilization occurs( secondary)

temperature of the testes is at issue : HEAT

ESTROGEN

creates proliferative endometrium
necessary for proper ovulation
decreases sex drive

PROGESTERONE

maintains secretory endometrium
necessary for survival of embryo
restores sex drive
precursor of corticosteroids (cortisol)

T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity

B cells are primarily responsible for humoral immunity (antibodies).

function of T cells and B cells is to recognize specific “non-self” antigens, during a process known as antigen presentation.

1. superior/inferior vena cava

2. right atrium

3. tricuspid valve

4. right ventricle

5. pulmonary valve

6. pulmonary artery

7. lungs

8. pulmonary veins

9. left atrium

10. mitral valve

11. left ventricle

12. aortic valve

13. aorta

14. body

peristalsis

FALLOPIAN TUBES

estrogen and progestin

Bile production and excretion
Excretion of bilirubin, cholesterol, hormones, and drugs
Metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
Enzyme activation
Storage of glycogen, vitamins, and minerals
Synthesis of plasma proteins, such as albumin, and clotting factors
Blood detoxification and purification

teeth, tongue, pharynx, stomach, gallbladder, liver, small intestine, colon, and pancreas.

Female: ovaries, uterus, and vagina.
Male: testes and penis.

The male internal accessory organs include:
Epididymides
Ductus deferentia
Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral glands

1. Fallopian tube
2. Ovary
3. Uterus
4. Cervix
5. Vagina
6. Clitoris
7. Labia minora
8. Labia majora.

Sperm have three parts: a head chromatin; a midpiece filled with mitochondria to provide energy; and a flageullum or tail to move the sperm

Blood leaves the heart via the aorta and enters the renal artery where it flows into the interlobar arteries. From there it branches off to the arcuate artery, blood flows to the cortical radiate arteries then into the afferent arteriole. From the afferent arteriole, it goes into the glomerulus for filtering.

all waste goes to the proximal convoluted tubule, while blood that will stay in the body goes to the efferent arteriole. More blood filtering takes place in the peritubular capillaries. Blood that will stay in the body exits through the cortical radiate veins, then goes into the arcuate vein, then into the interlobar vein, then the renal vein, then back to the heart via the inferior vena cava.

At the same time this is happening, the waste that was sent to the proximal convoluted tubule travels down the descending loop of henle, then up the ascending loop of henle to the distal convoluted tubule where it is dumped into the collecting duct. From the collecting duct >>>, it goes into the ureters>>>>, travels to the bladder>>>>>, and then leaves the body via the urethra.

They regulate the temperature of the testes.

peristaltic contractions

Hypothalamus →GnRH→Pituitary →FSH →Follicle →Estrogens

the bulbospongiosus muscles

the seminal vesicles

GnRH

1. Perimetrium - is a thin covering on the outside of the uterus. It is actually part of the peritoneum. OUTSIDE
2. Myometrium - consists of three layers of smooth muscle. longitudinal, circular, and spiral. CONTRATIONS IN PREGNANCY
3. Endometrium - is the inner mucosal lining. it consists of two layers:sheds at period
4. Stratum functionale - contains secretory glands. This is the portion that is shed during mensus.

1. Stratum basale - is a highly vascularized layer which serves to regenerate the stratum functionale.

renal pyramid

renal corpuscle

RENAL ARTERY

ureter

nephron

major calyx

minor calyx

SEGMENTAL ARTERY

INTERLOBAR ARTERY

CORNICAL RADIATE

ARQUATE

CORONARY SINUS- BIG FAT BACK

GREAT CARDIAC VEIN

INFERIOR VENA CAVA

L/R ORICAL

Top is fundus

layers of gastrointestinal tract, the stomach walls consist of an outer mucosa, and inner submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.

CARDIAC

PYLORIC REGION- PYLORIC CANAL

DUODEUOM

Tightly coiled tubes
Connected to ducts within the testis
Promote maturation of sperm cells

secretion of male hormones prenatally and lasting into the first few months after birth

receive, retain, and nourish a fertilized ovum

cells produce surface antigens that are recognized as foreign by the immune system

fallopian tubes

twice the diploid number, and with every succeeding generation, the chromosome number would continue to double and normal development could not occur

they have the same number of chromosomes

meiosis

formation of a functional sperm by the stripping away of superfluous cytoplasm

corpus luteum

Metabolic alkalosis develops when your body loses too much acid or gains too much base. This can be attributed to:

• excess vomiting, which causes a loss of electrolytes
• Gastric drainage, vomiting...loss of acids

Metabolic acidosis starts in the kidneys instead of the lungs. It occurs when they can’t eliminate enough acid or when they get rid of too much base. There are three major forms of metabolic acidosis:

• Diabetic acidosis occurs in people with diabetes
• Hyperchloremic acidosis results from a loss of sodium bicarbonate. This base helps to keep the blood neutral. Both diarrhea and vomiting can cause this type of acidosis.
• Lactic acidosis occurs when there’s too much lactic acid in your body.
• Kidney failure, excessive acidic ketones ( diabetes mellitus), prolonged diarrhea, prolonged vomiting...loss of bases

taenia coli Any of the three bands in which the longitudinal muscular fibers of the large intestine

sigmoid

epiploic appendices / omental appendices are small pouches of the peritoneum filled with fat and situated along the colon, but are absent in the rectum.

TRACHEA - L /R BRONCHI

AORTA

INFERIOR VENA CAVA

THYROID

ESOPHAGAS

SPLEEN

COMMON ILIAC- DIVISION

gallbladder

right lobe

inferior vena cava

hepatic portal

Endocardium - heart valves

Myocardium - Conduction system

• SA node >> AV node >>> bundle of Hise >> bundle branches >> Purkinje fibers

Pericardial cavity - Pericardial sinus

Vena Cava
Carries deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart

Semilunar Valve
Flaps that prevent backflow of blood

Left Atrium
Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs

Left Ventricle
Region of the heart that pumps blood to the body

Pulmonary Artery
Carries blood to the lungs

Right Ventricle
Region of the heart that pumps blood to the lungs

Pulmonary Vein
Carries blood from the lungs

Right Atrium
Segment of the heart that receives deoxygenated blood

Aorta/ AORTIC ARCH
The main artery carrying blood to all parts of the body

chordae tendineae : heart strings, are cord-like tendons that connect the papillary muscles to the tricuspid valve and the mitral valve

PAPIL

ESOPHAGAS

L/R BRONCHI

TRACHEA

PULMONARY TRUNK

AORTIC ARCH

INFERIOR VENA CAVA

AORTA

DIAPHRAGM

• appendix
• ascending colon
• transverse colon
• The descending colon
• The sigmoid colon – the v-shaped region of the large intestine Cecum – the first part of the large intestine Taeniae coli – three bands of smooth muscle Haustra – bulges caused by contraction of taeniae coli Epiploic appendages – small fat accumulations on the viscera

follice develops day 14 - ovulation (estrogen peaks)

day 12-14 estrogen drops - more frisky (surge)

day 20-21 progesterone goes up - mucus thickens - peaks

estrogen peaks again

pms estrogen and progesterone drop : repeat 28 days

ovum

human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

primordial follicles
developing follicles
corpus luteum (-->corpus albicans)
stromal cells

1. Mesovarium (attaches to ovary to POSTERIOR surface of broad ligaments)

2. A pair of supporting ligaments (ovarian ligaments & suspension ligaments)

progesterone levels are at their highest

(1) synthesis & secretion of sex hormones
(2) release a secondary oocyte every 28 days
(3) Secrete inhibin (which is involved in the negative feedback ctrl of pituitary FSH production)

Zona pellucida

ovum

zygote

If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum is maintained by a hormone secreted by the developing embryo.

thalamus

The mammary glands are modified sweat glands that are actually part of the integumentary system.

in oogenesis, one mature ovum is produced, and in spermatogenesis four mature sperm are produced from the parent cell

The first polar body has also divided to produce two polar bodies.

The smooth muscle sphincter at the base of the urinary bladder closes.

involves a kind of cell division limited to the gametes

spleen - hepatic portal

pancreas leading to small intestine @ dueodium

sublingual

submandibular

parotoid

BLADDER

CURVED SIGMIOD

COMMON ILIAC ARTERY

INFERIOR VENA CAVA

AORTA

ADRENAL GLANDS

KIDNEY

SPLEEN

DIAPHRAGM

ESOPHAGUS

THYROID

Thyroid

SUPERIOR LIMB- ARM

COMMON CAROTID-> SUBCLAVICAN-> AXILLARY->BRACHIAL-> DEEP ARTERY OF ARM-> RADIAL/ULNAR-> DEEP PALMAR-> SUPERFICIAL PALMAR->DIGITALS

1. Palmar digital vein
2. Palmar metacarpal vein
3. Palmar venous arch vein
4. Radial and ulnar vein
5. Brachial vein
6. Axillary vein
7. Subclavian vein
8. Brachiocephalic vein
9. Superior vena cava
10. Right atrium
11. Tricuspid valve
12. Right ventricle
13. Pulmonary semilunar valve
14. Pulmonary trunk
15. Pulmonary artery
16. Lungs

17. Pulmonary veins
18. Left atrium
19. Mitral valve / bicuspid valve / Left AV Valve
20. Left ventricle
21. Aortic semilunar valve
22. Ascending aorta
23. Passes right and left coronary arteries
24. Aortic arch
25. Brachiocephalic trunk
26. Passes opening of the right common carotid artery
27. Right subclavian
28. Axillary artery
29. Brachial artery
30. Ulnar and radial artery
31. Palmar arch artery
32. Palmar metacarpal artery
33. Palmar digital vein

CELIAC TRUNK->LEFT GASTRIC-> COMMON HEPATIC->SPLEENIC R.GASTRIC->L. GASTROEPIPLOIC-> R. GASTROEPIPLOIC->GASTRODUODENAL

principal androgen produced by the testes is testosterone. Production of testosterone by the testes is stimulated by luteinizing hormone (LH), produced by anterior pituitary secretion of LH is stimulated by (GnRH), released from the hypothalamus, inhibited by testosterone, inhibits the secretion of GnRH. These hormones constitute the (hypothalamic-pituitary-testes axis).

External iliac

internal iliac

femoral

great saphenous

small saphenous

popliteal

perioneal (Fibula)

Anterior tibial

posterior tibial

COMMON ILIAC -> FEMORAL-> DEEP ARTERY OF THE THIGH->POPLITIAL LOWER LEG->ANTERIOR TIBILIAR / POSTERIAL TIBULAR/ FIBULAR ->ARCULATE (DORSAL ASPECT OF FOOT ) _. PANTAR ARTERY->DIGITAL ARTERY

NA+

CI-

MG2+

CA2+

K+

prostaglandins- HELP SPERM MOVE

BILE STORAGE

CO2 DOWN PH UP- TOO LITTLE / DECREASE IN CO2 - RISE IN PH

RE-ABSORPTION OF H2O: WHY ? DEHYDRATED AND NEED MORE RE-ABSORPTION OF FLUIDS

DIABETES INSIPIDUS

CO2

KIDNEY- PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE - 70 % RE-ABSORPTION

FILTRATION RATE, BLOOD PRESSURE AND PH

METABOLIC ACIDOSIS

METABOLIC ALKALOSIS

RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS

DECREASES

EXPAND THE LUNGS : NATURAL ELASTIC RECOIL

INCREASE PRESSURE / LOWER VOLUME = CO2 OUT

AMYLASE

MAKE BICARBONATE FROM PANCREAS BE RELEASED FOR SMALL INTESTINE

FSH- FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE

UTI

SACRAL SEGMENTS OF THE SPINAL CORD

CCK

SECRETIN

SUBCLAVIAN

BRACIOCEPHALLIC

SUPERIOR VENA CAVA

circumcise

heat of body will destroy it

FRANK - STERLING

COMMON ILIAC

FEMORAL

POPLITEAL

ANTERIOR TIBULAR/ POSTERIOR TIBULAR, FIBULAR

DORSALAS PEDIS

DIFFERENTIATES INTO PLASMA CELLS / CREATES ANTIBODIES

dartos and cremaster muscle male shrinkage

SYMPATHETIC - CORPUS SPONGIOSUM

FALLOPIAN TUBES

UTERUS

ESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE

FIRST ESTROGEN SURGE DAY 12-14

PROGESTERONE

MENSTRAL : ESTROGEN ( UP ) DAY 12-14 >>> LH/ FSH ( UP) SURGE- EGG

COMES OUT >> LH/ FSH / ESTROGEN (DOWN) PROGESTRONE (UP) PEAKS AT

DAY 21 >>> 2ND SURGE DAY 22-25 ESTROGEN (UP) >>> ESTROGEN (DOWN)

PROGESTRON (DOWN) >>>> PMS UNTIL MENOPAUSE

Blood >>> heart via >>>> aorta >>> renal artery >>>

interlobar arteries >>> arcuate artery >>>> pyramids >>>

arcuate artery >>> cortical radiate arteries >>>> afferent arteriole

>>> ADH- DCT DISTAL CONVELATED TUBE>>> proximal convoluted tubule

>>> efferent arteriole >>> peritubular capillaries >>> Blood >>>

in the body exits >>>cortical radiate veins >>>> arcuate vein>>> interlobar vein

>>> renal vein >> heart >>> inferior vena cava >>> waste >>

proximal convoluted tubule >>> descending loop of henle >>>

ascending loop of henle >>> distal convoluted tubule >>>

collecting duct>>>>ureters >>> bladder >>>> leaves the body via the urethra.

chlamydia

gonorrhea

syphilis

vaginitis

Trichomoniasis

The more that you read, the more things you will know. The more that you learn, the more places you'll go.
Dr. Seuss

tachycardia

bradycardia

Brachiocephalic veins

Common iliac arteries

Supplies the duodenum and stomach
Answer: A
Supplies the kidney.
Artery that does not anastomose.
Answer: B
Supplies the distal areas of the large intestine.
Answer: C
Supplies pelvic structures.
Answer: D
Largest artery of the body.
Answer: E

Cephalic veins

External jugular vein

tunica media

right cartoid artery

superior mesenteric artery

right ventricle, pulmonary artery, and left atrium

Frank-Starling's

circle of willis (brain)

CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLES AND THE DIAPHRAGM

GASTRAPHOLIAS : EXERCISE: SQUEEZES THE INFERIOR VENA CAVA

INTERNAL CARTOID AND VERTERBRAL

To upper body

To abdominal cavity; legs

Supplies oxygenated blood to the heart muscle

To / From shoulder

To / From underarm area

To/From upper arm

To/From lateral lower arm used to take pulse @ wrist

To/From medial lower arm

(serving brain) To brain (posterior)

To/From liver

To/From kidneys

To/From posterior abdominal wall

To/From upper leg- the external iliac artery entering the thigh

To/From lower leg

To/From top of foot

To/From bottom of foot

From upper body

From lower body

from brain

from superficial tissues of the head and neck

from superficial lateral arm

from superficial middle of arm (usually take blood from this vein)

from superficial medial leg (longest vein)

To/From superficial leg

1. SVC
2. L. and R. Brachiocephalic
3. Internal Jugular
4. External Jugular
5. Subclavian
6. IVC
7. Hepatic veins
8. R. Suprarenal
9. R. gonadal
10. R. Renal
11. L. Suprarenal
12. L. Renal
13. L. Gonadal
14. Common iliac
15. Internal iliac
16. External iliac
17. Femoral
18. R.Ascend

Descending aorta: descending thoracic aorta and descending abdominal aorta

Renal arteries

Inferior vena cava

Renal veins