A&P Exam 3 Material (Final) Flashcards

A typical bone has these 2 distinct regions of bone

The inside of the bone; important function is hematopoiesis

Difference r/t hematopoiesis in children vs. adults

Region of long bone:

Head of bone

Region of long bone:

Shaft of bone

Bones found in the limbs

In the femur, as in the humerus, hematopoiesis occurs only in 1) this region of the bone, which is composed of 2) this type of bone

In adult bones that don't participate in hematopoiesis, 1) what change occurs, 2) what is it due to, and 3) where does it occur?

Most of bone is encased within this layer, which has 2 sublayers

The periosteum, which encases most bone, consists of these 2 layers

Layer of periosteum w/collagen fibers

Layer of periosteum that plays key role in bone formation

The periosteum is replaced by _____ 1 _____ on the _____ 2 _____ of the bone

Articular cartilage, which replaces the periosteum on the articular surface of bones, is composed of this glassy, very smooth cartilage

Glassy, very smooth cartilage that replaces the periosteum on articular surfaces of bones

This type of bone has an orderly structure & contains a series of tunnels

Series of tunnels within compact bone; contain blood vessels

The layer lining the central canals within compact bone

2 layers within bone that participate in new bone formation

Completely encloses spongy bone

-Thin layer

-Accounts for smaller volume of given bone

-Higher density, so 75% of bone by weight

What would happen if all of your bone was compact bone?

The circular structure surrounding one central canal; includes rings marked with osteocytes

Cells in concentric rings within an osteon; trapped inside the matrix of compact bone

1. Where are osteoblasts located?

2. What substance do they secrete?

3. What is this substance?

Making the bone matrix (and thus bone formation) is a 2-step process. What are these 2 steps?

Where do the minerals that form hydroxyapatite and complete the 2nd step of bone matrix formation come from?

What happens to some osteoblasts that get trapped in matrix?

What function do the tiny canals that connect osteocytes serve?

Identify which cells are osteoblasts (depositing osteoid) & which are osteocytes (trapped in osteoid)

Precursor cells, forming osteocytes; responsible for bone formation

Multinucleate cells made from fusion of many macrophages; role is bone resorption

When an osteoblast becomes an osteocyte (normal life cycle), does the activity increase or decrease?

Sequence of events for bone remodeling (3 steps)

Cluster of cells functioning as "Cutting Cones", like Big Bertha; tunneling machine

Follow behind, zipping up & resealing tunnel left behind (bone formation)

Can cause significant lag in between bone breakdown & bone formation

Insufficient Ca++/phosphorus, which can create a lag between bone breakdown & formation, can lead to a situation not unlike what disease process?

Induces more bone growth as a response

Which femur, left or right, is reflective of an individual who lived a sedentary lifestyle?

Made up of lots of tiny struts of bone; space between struts filled with marrow

Tiny struts that form the composition of spongy bone

Since trabeculi surfaces are covered by endosteum, bone is deposited in __1__ layers, with the __2__ bone being the outermost layer

How do the trabeculi of spongy bone line up in relation to direction? How is this different in adults vs. infants/toddlers?

Bone density condition increasing risk of fractures

Bone disorder characterized by vitamin D deficiency in children; uncommon in developed countries

Caused by vitamin D or Ca++ deficiency in adults

2 bone disorders which can result in bone deformations which aren't reversible

Repair of broken bone is similar to bone development, but requires these 2 components

4 steps of bone remodeling following fracture:

After a fracture, after spongy bone is converted to compact bone, these cells perform the final "editing"

Even though skeleton is bone, it still requires this as the foundation for its development

Type of fracture caused by overuse r/t repetition

Type of fracture where bone isn't broken all the way through

Type of fracture where bone is broken all the way across

Type of fracture where 2 pieces are still together

Type of fracture where 2 pieces, or ends, are apart

Type of fracture that is broken or splintered into 3 or more fragments

List fracture types from least to most severe

Most common fracture site in body - due to a medial forceful thrust

Note that distal end of clavicle sags, while proximal end is displaced upwards

4 most clinically relevant bones

"Porous bone" - disease of the aged; more common in women

Most common sites of FX's r/t osteoporosis

DX tool for bone health; can be used to assess bone density for both hip & spine, which can predict risk of future FX's

Excellent DX tool to detect early signs of osteoporosis & estimate risk of future FX's

The World Health Organization (WHO) has adopted standards for bone health, called T & Z scores. While Z scores are measured in a percentile based on age & gender (similar to physical development of children), where having a Z score of 80% is better than 40%, T scores have 4 different classifications. What are these 4 classifications?

Under ideal circumstances, what's the best treatment for osteoporosis? Once diagnosed, what's the treatment regimen?

18-month training program designed to add bone density to hips & vertebrae & strengthen lower extremities, mostly through resistance exercise, education & diet. This will reduce the risk of falls.

Why does aging result in bone loss?

Abnormal spine curvature r/t compression FX's of multiple vertebrae

Normal MRI of spine vs. =>

Why is osteoporosis more common in women?

What 2 features complicate vertebral compression FX's?

The majority of vertebral FX's are located where?

As recent as 25 years ago, this FX was tantamount to a death sentence r/t how it was treated

In a bad ankle sprain, this ligament is almost always the first to rupture

Ligaments do what when rested (opposite of muscles)? This means initially we'll passively rest, & then actively rest by doing resistance training in the foot (muscles & tendons of foot are strengthened, taking "load" off ligaments)

A ligament in this state, which usually occurs following injury, places the person at greater risk of another sprain

3 of these; attach to ischial tuberosity; can avulse from bone (usually not all 3 due to amount of force required) at high speeds & with rapid acceleration & deceleration

Bone d/o of young adolescents; chronic injury characterized by painful lump just below knee; usually resolves w/rest

If you're considering Osgood-Schlatter as a DX, but a patient's symptoms are acute, what else must you consider?

Painful condition from irritation of the anterior tibia region; can involve posterior tibialis muscle; rapid increase in activity level increases risk, & rest is the treatment

What's the stress FX continuum?

Approximately 85% of body's metabolic activity & heat production come from these

Muscle repair is __1__ controlled and __2__ directed

Hormones involved in muscle remodeling

Prime mover; muscle primarily responsible for given joint's action; if more than one muscle is involved, this is supplying the most force

Muscle that opposes prime mover (agonist) at a joint

Muscle that works w/agonist to further muscle action

This muscle type is found on the opposite side of a limb or the body

Muscles must overcome these 3 forces

How is a joint, say the knee, stabilized during exercise or activity?

How do muscles show efficiency of patterned movement, such as when running?

What are the 3 types of skeletal muscle?

Between the 3 skeletal muscle types (ST/FO/FG), give the size of each

1. Which of the 3 skeletal muscle types would be called upon for minimal work?

2. What about for a heavy load or when other fibers are fatigued?

Attach muscle to bone

Attach bone to bone

Why does healing take so long with ligament/tendon damage?

A muscle tear; usually graded

Injury to a ligament r/t overstretching

Classic tendon structure

What's the name for a mild Achilles injury? What's the treatment?

Longest tendon of the body

Tendons with wide, sheet-like attachments in which the attachment of a broad, flat muscle occurs over a wide area; found primarily in the lower back, ABD wall, skull, palms of hands & soles of feet

Muscle that acts to flex the spine; important for posture; encased in a sheath formed from 3 aponeuroses

Prime flexor of the elbow; contributes most force to flexion

Synergistic flexor of elbow; supinates forearm

Extensor; extends elbow

Muscle group (4); extend knee & flex hip

The quads are innervated solely by this nerve

Muscle group (3); flex knee & extend hip

The __1__ is the prime move of plantar flexion, while the __2__ is the prime mover when the knee is extended

Prime mover of dorsiflexion; flexes big toe; sometimes source of shin splints

What's the concept of "remote control" in relation to muscles, and what are some examples?

Leading cause of lateral knee pain

Two muscles which become one (level of the femur); strongest of muscles that flex hip

Muscle that sits over sciatic notch that causes sciatica when inflamed

Longest nerve in body - extending from hip to foot

What are some causes of back pain resulting from straining the paraspinal muscles?

1. Piriformis syndrome can lead to this

2. Treatments include...

Thin membrane lining joint cavity; nourishes & lubricates articular cartilage

Deepens socket (labrum) or acts as wedges for a better fit between bones

Fluid-filled sac that cushions space between tendons & bones

Sleeve-like, loose fibrous layer attached to articulated surfaces

Provides GLASSY surface to reduce friction between bones

"Shrink-wrapping" tissue which prevents tendons from bowstringing away from bone

Arrangement of ligaments along most joints for directional support

Perforating fibers of periosteum, which penetrate bone & help attach tendon

When bursa are wrapped around a tendon, what are they called?

Bursitis is most common in this joint

Increased amount of joint fluid in response to infection, inflammation, crystals, or increased friction is called:

Consists of fibrous connective tissue; lined inside with synovial membrane

Large class of inflammatory disorders in synovial joints

Chronic degenerative disease caused by loss of articular cartilage; distinguished by its lack of inflammation, despite the "itis" suffix

TX for bursitis

Carpal tunnel TX

Joint designed for ROM, not stability

Clinically significant joint; very mobile, yet unstable, gets dislocated often

Strongest joint of the body

A shoulder dislocation occurs when the __1__ comes out of its __2__ socket; 95% of the time, the shoulder is dislocated __3__; treatment is a __4__, followed by immobilization (sling) and rest

Largest, most complex joint in body; strength depends mostly on ligaments, muscles, and tendons

This bone is a sesamoid bone, meaning it's within a tendon

How can you test for an ACL injury?

"Unhappy triad" of ACL injuries

Articular cartilage & bone wear away; common in weight bearing joints, distal finger joints, & hips

1. What activities reduce symptoms r/t osteoarthritis?

2. What medications are helpful?

Autoimmune form of arthritis

The ligaments that stabilize the __1__ joint stretch during pregnancy due to secretion of __2__

This huge, superficial group of 3 muscles are the common site of back strains r/t heavy lifting, twisting, or sudden movement

Technical name for "runner's knee"

The peripheral nervous system consists of these 2 components

A neuron consists of these 3 parts

Part of neuron that receives information from other neurons

Part of neuron that releases neurotransmitter

The message being transmitted by neurotransmitters is a mix of these two types of messages

What determines whether a neuron will fire?

Locate the following:

-Thalamus

-Hypothalamus

-Midbrain

-Pons

-Medulla

Relays information to cerebral cortex; a left & right side, which are completely independent of each other

Deals with "housekeeping"; temp control, BP, thirst/appetite, sex drive, & lactation

The brainstem is divided into these 3 parts

Posterior & inferior to cerebral cortex; mostly involved in motor control

Largest part of brain

Depression or fissure in the surface of the brain

Ridge on the surface of the brain

This colored matter forms the exterior of the cerebral cortex

ID the following:

-Frontal lobe

-Parietal lobe

-Occipital lobe

-Temporal lobe

-Central sulcus

Locate the limbic lobe

Locate the hippocampus

*What lobe is it part of?

Generally considered the part of the cortex most susceptible to seizures

Responsible for forming long-term memories (not storing!)

Tube embedded in temporal bone; filled with fluid; receives sound waves which excite auditory receptor cells (hair cells)

Therapy for total deafness; excite auditory neurons in the auditory relay nucleus (cochlea) directly

Where does auditory information go once it's received by the cochlea & transferred to CN VIII?

Why would a person suffering damage to one hemisphere of the auditory cortex (left or right) not necessarily experience deafness in either ear?

Essential for language comprehension (spoken or written); damage here causes _____'s aphasia, resulting in inability to comprehend language, although individual can still speak

Type of aphasia resulting in patient being unable to comprehend language, although they're still able to speak

Essential for language production (speech or writing); damage here will result in speech production being limited, from modest deficits in sentence generation to complete inability to speak

Probably more r/t language comprehension than production; located posterior & superior to Wernicke's area

ID the following:

-Wernicke's area

-Broca's area

-Angular gyrus

These areas are found only in the left hemisphere in almost all right-handed people & about 70% of left-handed people

A person with a lesion in this region may suffer from what disorder?

If a person suffering from anomia (caused by lesion of temporal lobe), and they were shown a comb, how would they describe it?

Where's the primary visual cortex (VI) located?

What sensory cortex is part of this lobe?

Sheet of neurons lining 2/3 of the eye

Outermost layer of the retina

Innermost layer of the retina

Where is the first visual relay in the brain?

Where do axons cross in the visual pathway?

Optic nerve axons (50%) that cross the optic chiasm send information to this cortex

Optic nerve axons (50%) that don't cross the optic chiasm send information to this cortex

Rule for visual system:

1. Information from the right half of the visual field goes to what half of the brain?

2. Info from the left half of visual field goes to what half?

Sees right visual field

Sees left visual field

1. What would happen if a lesion occurred along the optic nerve prior to the optic chiasm?

2. What if the lesion occurred after the optic chiasm (closer to visual cortex in occipital lobe)?

*Picture on reverse side

Caused by atherosclerotic-like deposits that build up behind the retina on the central region; responsible for high visual acuity (foveal vision) needed to read books, look at pictures, & other fine detail activities

While the spinal cord is part of the CNS, its projections, the _____ _____ _____, are part of the peripheral nervous system

The spinal cord is shorter than the vertebral column:

1. What's the space inferior to the spinal cord called?

2. What's it useful for?

Color of the outer layer of the spinal cord

Part of peripheral nervous system containing cell bodies of somatosensory neurons

The central axonal branch of each __1__ neuron runs up the spinal cord in the __2__ matter; these axons make up a tract called the _____ 3 _____

How does touch pathway convey information?

Touch information from the left side of the body will terminate where?

1. What's the red area?

2. What's the blue area behind it?

3. What separates the two?

As the touch relay pathway travels up the axonal branch in the white matter of the spinal cord, what 2 relay points does it hit before reaching the primary somatosensory cortex (SI)?

Pathway for touch relay pathway is same for face with one exception - touch neurons have cell bodies in the __1__ ganglion, and the 1st relay occurs in the __2__ of the brainstem, not the __3__

1. What's the image on the left depicting?

2. If this is an anterior view, what would happen if a lesion occurred where "leg" is mapped?

Deficits resulting from a lesion in the primary somatosensory cortex (SI), which would be localized to opposite side using somatotopic "touch" map (i.e. leg, arm, GI, etc.), would produce what potential deficits?

Most of the axons in the pain/temperature pathway are of this variety

Believed to be the major pain-processing area in the cortex

1. All pain/temp neurons in the face & head have cell bodies in what ganglion?

2. Where does information travel to from this ganglion?

3. What's different from touch relay pathway?

Whereas the face/head nociceptors have their cell bodies in the trigeminal ganglion, the body's nociceptors house their cell bodies in the _____ ganglia

1. First "relay nucleus" for body's pain reception

2. Message then travels along this highway

3. The highway ends here

Dull pain nociceptors are activated by strong mechanical stimulation, intense heat/cold, & these substances

When a dull pain nociceptor is activated, it not only fires spikes, but also releases a peptide, __1__ from its own endings; this peptide stimulates __2__ cells, producing __3__. Substances (histamine, prostaglandin, serotonin) further stimulate nociceptor, which continues to fire even after stimulus is gone; this is why dull pain nociceptors generate prolonged pain & contribute to inflammation

A person with a herniated disc will have these 2 kinds of pain

Why do narcotic drugs relieve pain?

"Unhealthy" pain; not caused by tissue injury, but CNS changes, such as damage to part of pathway; chronic & not easily controlled

All motor neurons send their axons out to where?

Cell bodies of motor neurons are located where?

How are motor neurons arranged in the spinal cord?

Motor neurons that control muscles of the face/head have their cell bodies in the __1__; their axons go out to their muscle targets via _____ 2 _____.

The descending motor pathway crosses over to the contralateral side of the spinal cord just below this structure

Corticospinal tract carrying signals from the right motor cortex will run through the spinal cord on which side?

A patient with damage to their left motor cortex will have motor symptoms appear on what side of their body?

There is an elaborate mechanism in the brainstem & cortex for controlling eye movements. The master controller in the brainstem is a large bulge on the dorsal surface of the midbrain, called the:

Information from vestibular hair cells, located in the otolith organs, send information to brainstem via 1) what ganglion, and 2) where do they travel?

This reflex cancels out the unintended head rotation that results from activities such as walking (foot strikes ground), causing eyes to rotate in opposite directions to stabilize image on retinas; suppressed during intentional head rotation

Damage to cerebellum causes what type of problems?

An information loop exists between the motor cortex & cerebellum; since the motor cortex is a crossed system, but the cerebellum isn't, how many times do the connections in the loop cross the midline?

Damage to the medial portion of the cerebellum, or vernis, may cause this motor problem

1. What test, when performed, will yield these results if positive?

-Movements too large

-Patient has intentional tremor - hand oscillates with extension, but no tremor at rest

-Movement broken down into smaller movements (sequential)

2. What is the probable diagnosis?

Patient's with cerebellar disease will exhibit what characteristic r/t their gait?

The function of this brain region is to encourage or strengthen movements - gives a "boost" to commands from motor cortex, lest they miss this area & be weak/feeble

The substantia nigra, part of the basal ganglia, enhances movement through exciting the striatum (and other parts of basal ganglia). Its neurons use __1__ as its neurotransmitter, and in __2__ disease, these neurons mostly die, resulting in difficulty moving and weakness; slow & progressive

ID the following:

-Left lateral ventricle (right hidden)

-4th ventricle

-3rd ventricle

CSF flow starts in the __1__ ventricles, then thru the __2__ ventricle & into a tube that leads to the __3__ ventricle, also called the _____ 4 _____; it then exits to bathe the brain & spinal cord

Which 2 routes of blood into the brain are essential for it to function?

This vessel is clinically important because a rupture of one of its branches may result in a hematoma, which can compress the cortex

This pathology is characterized by slow, oozing accumulation of blood with vague, nonspecific symptoms such as headache, cognitive impairment, unsteady gait

Most common, and catastrophic, cause of this pathology is an aneurysm; can cause an extremely severe headache ("thunderclap")

Characterized by a "thunderclap" headache

Common location of an aneurysm

These substances can get past the blood-brain barrier

Form blood-brain barrier; provide structure & sustenance in CNS

Make glia wrapping (myelin sheath) in CNS

Autoimmune disease where myelin wrappings in some regions of white matter are attacked; these regions are subsequently termed "plaques"; plaques heal, but there remains unhealed damage that adds up over time; eventually patient may not be able to walk

1. What difference would you see if you cut both an axon in the CNS & an axon in the PNS?

2. Why?

Glia in this region are special; have been used to culture & grow more for injection into the spinal cord for regenerative purposes

The peripheral nervous system can be divided into these 2 parts

Nervous system that innervates skeletal muscles; r/t motor controls, such as voluntary movements & involuntary reflexes (i.e. patellar reflex, or knee jerk)

In addition to innervating skeletal muscle for motor purpose, the somatic nervous system also has __1__ nerve fibers that are responsible for communicating __2__ information to the CNS, such as touch, temperature, & pressure

The autonomic nervous system is further divided into these 3 systems

This nervous system is self-governed; innervates viscera (i.e. smooth muscle, cardiac) to adjust their functions

The __1__ coordinates ANS function with both the __2__ & __3__ systems, and circadian rhythmic activity (i.e. sleep-wake cycles)

What does this picture represent?

What does this picture represent?

Where do the cell bodies of neurons belonging to the ANS reside?

Organ involved in "sympathetic activation"

BP is monitored by __1__ located in an enlarged part of the _____ 2 _____; information is sent to the __3__ center in the __4__

If BP is too high, the __1__ nerve transmits __2__ activity to the heart to slow rate & reduce force; if BP is too low, signals from __3__ center go to __4__ cells in the spinal cord, which are then relayed to neurons in the _____ 5 _____, which accelerate HR & increase force of contraction

Orthostatic hypotension is caused by these 2 factors

Viral disease of spinal ganglia; dermatomally distributed skin lesions

Patients most at risk of developing a subdural hematoma