Testosterone is a ___________ molecule
steroid
Testosterone is converted to _______________ in the prostate.
Trihydrotestosterone
Males adults have been observed to make ________________ sperm daily.
90,000
Testosterone is responsible for all of the development of the male secondary sex
characteristcs below EXCEPT
dry skin
The length of the ovarian cycle is dependent on
follicular phase
What are the gametes called in females AND males
ova and sperm
What is it called when one male and one female gamete combine?
Zygote
Testosterone is considered what type of molecule?
Steroid molecule
Why does oogoniums being a diploid mean
It means that they have two of each chromosome similar to all other cells
Where do sperm cells gain motility in?
They gain motility in the epididymis
What is the difference between oogenesis and spermatogenesis?
Oogenesis has a higher error rate in chromosome numbers.
Which of the following is true about the functional gametes in oogenesis and spermatogenesis?
They both come from a single cell.
What causes the difference in error rate between oogenesis and spermatogenesis
The age of the active reproductive cell varies in oogenesis
How does the number of chromosomes differ in gametes produced by oogenesis compared to spermatogenesis?
There is no difference in chromosome numbers in the gametes
What is the difference in number of functional gametes between oogenesis and spermatogenesis
Oogenesis produces one functional ovum per cycle
Which of the following statements about body water content is TRUE?
Adult males generally have a higher percentage of body water than females due to greater muscle mass.
Which of the following best explains how changes in extracellular fluid osmolality affect cellular water movement?
A hypertonic extracellular environment causes water to leave the cell due to a higher solute concentration outside
Which of the following best describes the role of feedback mechanisms in regulating ADH release and water balance
Decreased blood pressure stimulates baroreceptors, leading to increased ADH release and water retention
Which of the following is a possible cause of metabolic acidosis?
Starvation or buildup of acid from exercise
Which of the following symptoms might indicate a potassium imbalance in the body?
Cardiac arrhythmias and a flattened T-wave on an ECG
What defines osmotic power into biological systems and its role in fluid distribution?
The force generated by solutes that pulls water across cell membranes
How does an increase in extracellular fluid osmolality typically affect a cell?
Water flows out of the cell, potentially shrinking it
In terms of water movement, how do cells response differently to hypertonic vs. hypotonic environments?
Water exits in hypertonic and enters in hypotonic environments
What makes electrolytes like NaCl more effective in driving osmosis than molecules like glucose
Electrolytes split into multiple charged particles in solution
Why might magnesium be recommended as a post-workout supplement
It supports muscle contraction and nerve function
What is the primary reason every human inherits mitochondria only from their mother?
The ovum has more cytoplasm and contains the mitochondria needed for development
What is the role of progesterone in the ovarian and uterine cycles
It maintains the endometrium
What are the three germ layers formed during early embryonic development and their primary derivatives?
Endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm; form organs, muscle, and skin
Why is the temperature of the testes slightly lower than the core body temperature?
To support healthy sperm development and prevent heat-induced damage
How does the error rate in gamete formation differ between oogenesis and spermatogenesis
Oogenesis has a higher error rate due to increased meiotic errors over time
Where does fertilization take place?
Fallopian Tubes
What is testosterone
A steroid molecule that is responsible for the development of the male reproductive system
Why are the testes located outside the body?
To keep the testes cooler than normal body temperature
What happens when there is triploidy, a genetic condition where a cell has three sets of chromosomes?
Miscarriage + Apoptosis
What are the male secondary sex characteristics?
Increased muscle mass + increased libido
Which process has a higher error rate of number of chromosomes?
Oogenesis
What is the functional unit of the ovary
Ovarian Follicle
How many days does the typical ovarian cycle last?
28 days
Which layer of the uterus is shed during the menstrual phase
Endometrium
What cancer is the second most common cause of cancer death in US women?
Breast cancer
What is the process of the development of male sex cells called?
Spermatogenesis
What contributes to proper sperm formation in males?
proper testosterone + stress levels + genetics
What is the process of spermatogenesis
Spermatogonium cells (2n) give rise to primary spermatocytes (2n) and mature sperm cells develop through meiosis I & II
Why is it important for sperm cells to gain motility within the epididymis
Non-motile sperm do not reach the fallopian tubes
How many germ layers does embryonic development have at 10 days and then at 16 days
2, 3
How does the male hormone testosterone affect physical development?
Increases bone density and muscle mass
How does the pathway of the female’s gamete dispersal compare to the male’s gamete dispersal?
The female’s gamete dispersal is shorter than that of the male
Why is the length of the ovarian cycle largely dependent on the follicular phase instead of the luteal phase?
The length of the luteal phase is always 14 days from ovulation to the end of the cycle
Why does the endometrium lining of the uterus shed if there is no embryo implantation
If there is not embryonic implantation, then the second gonadotropin hormone human chorionic gonadotropin is not released and thus the corpus luteum degenerates, leading to plummeting progesterone levels
How do primary oocytes, secondary oocytes, and ova structures differ?
Primary oocytes and secondary oocytes are diploid but mature ova are haploid
How long is a typical ovarian cycle
28 days
Which of the following is not a phase of the uterine cycle
Follicular phase
At what stage is meiosis II completed?
Fertilization
Breast Cancer occurs in what percent of women?
13%
Which hormone is not involved in the ovarian and uterine cycles?
TSH
Which electrolytes deficiency may cause cardiac arrhythmias or flattened T- wave on ECG?
Potassium
If a person has Cotton mouth and dry skin and is experiencing weight loss and fever with mental confusion. What state may they be at?
Maybe experiencing dehydration
Which IV treatment is needed for a patient that is in a hypotonic hydration state
Hypertonic solution
How much increase in osmolality is needed for osmoreceptors to be activated in the hypothalamus?
1 or 2%
Why is the osmotic power of electrolytes greater than nonelectrolytes?
In electrolytes, the independent ions may disassociate into several components
How many stages do follicles go through during development
3
Explain the pathway of female gamete dispersal?
Oocyte from the ovary to the fallopian tube
How many and what are the cycles of the Uterine Cycle
3: menstrual, proliferative, secretory
How much of the population of women with breast cancer get mutated genes?
10%
What can a low level of testosterone lead to?
Atrophy is accessory organs, decrease of semen volume,
erection/ejaculation are impaired.
Which of these is NOT a phase of the uterine cycle?
Maturation
What happens during the first phase of the uterine cycle?
Shedding of endometrium
Oogoniums are _________
Diploid (2n)
Where is the oocyte housed with the ovary?
Follicles
How many phases are there in the ovarian cycle?
Two
What causes the follicle to rupture (ovulation)?
FSH + LH
What is a known risk factor of breast cancer
a. Early onset of menstruation
b. No pregnancies
c. lack of or short periods of breast feeding
What hormone maintains the corpus luteum after embryo implantation?
Human chorionic gonadotropin
Explain what the role of testosterone in males.
a. Development of male reproductive system
b. Enchancing body hair growth
c. Spermagenesis
What is the ploidy of a mature ovum?
Haploid (1n)
Which of the following accurately describes a difference between oogenesis and spermatogenesis?
Oogenesis has a higher error rate in chromosome number.
What is the function of ovarian follicles
To house and support the development of an oocyte
To house and support the development of an oocyte
Progesterone
When does the endometrium rebuild itself during the uterine cycle?
Proliferative phase
What is the driving force of the Luteal phase?
Progesterone
How is a zygote formed?
A single sperm cell combines with an ovum in a process called fertilization.
Why must sperm be motile (able to move themselves)?
To travel up to the uterine tubes once inside the vagina
Choose the incorrect statement about female gametes:
A mature ovum is a diploid cell
What female hormone is testosterone converted to in the male brain?
Estradiol/estrogen
What happens in the case of polyspermy (multiple sperm fertilizing a single ovum)?
(Select all correct answers)
Miscarriage + Apoptosis
Why is the female reproductive environment essential for fetal development?
Because it supports gestation and birth by providing a nurturing internal environment
How does the acrosome reaction help prevent polyspermy during fertilization?
It blocks additional sperm from entering the egg once one has fused
Why is sperm motility gained in the epididymis critical for reproduction
Because non-motile sperm cannot reach the fallopian tubes to fertilize the egg
How is estradiol different from testosterone in its role in the body?
Estradiol is the most potent estrogen and influences brain neurons and reproductive tissues
Explain why the luteal phase always lasts 14 days in the ovarian cycle.
Because progesterone released during this phase has a consistent duration across cycles
The interstitial endocrine cells that produce testosterone are located
between the seminiferous tubules
These cells of the seminiferous tubule nourish the spermatids as they develop into sperm.
sustentocytes
In the male, this hormone stimulates endocrine cells to produce testosterone.
LH
The ___________ of the sperm contains enzymes necessary for the penetration of the egg.
acrosome
What is a key characteristic of the human reproductive system?
It functions intermittently
Which follicle stage has a single layer of cuboidal pre-granulosa cells?
Primary
Which phase of the ovarian cycle is influenced by progesterone
Luteal phase
Why are the male testes designed to be cooler than the average body temperature?
Because the heat would interfere with the development of healthy motile sperm
What can a lack of testosterone result in?
Erectile dysfunction, infertility, decreased bone density
What are the two phases in the ovarian cycle?
Follicular Phase, Luteal Phase
What hormone is responsible for male secondary sex characteristics?
Testosterone
What even marks the release of an egg during the ovarian cycle?
Ovulation
What does spermatogenesis go through to produce mature sperm cells?
Meiosis I and II
What is the function of granulosa cells in ovarian follicles?
Form part of the developing follicle around the oocyte
What phase signals growth of follicles in the ovary?
Follicular phase
Which of the following best explains why fertilization is considered a highly selective and regulated process?
It includes checks like the acrosome reaction to prevent polyspermy.
What role does progesterone play immediately after ovulation?
Maintains the uterine lining for potential implantation
In terms of thermoregulation and reproductive success, why are testes located outside the body cavity?
To reduce temperature and support optimal spermatogenesis
A primary oocyte remains arrested in which phase until ovulation?
Prophase I
Which of the following statements about testosterone is false
It decreases libido when elevated
A triploid zygote would most likely result from:
Polyspermy
During which phase of the uterine cycle is the endometrium rebuilt following menstruation?
Proliferative
A secondary follicle is identified by:
Multiple layers of granulosa cells
Why is sperm motility gained in the epididymis critical for successful fertilization?
To travel through the cervix and reach the oocyte
What is the functional significance of the luteal phase always being 14 days?
It helps align the ovarian and uterine cycles
Estrogen rises through what phase of a females cycle?
Follicular
Testosterone is primarily responsible for what male characteristics?
Secondary sex characteristics
What happens during fertilization?
Merging of two gametes
What hormone is signaled to increase to prevent menses once implantation of an embryo occurs?
Progesterone
The secretory phase of the uterine cycle is the uterine cycle is parallel to what phase of the ovarian cycle?
Luteal
NH4 excretion is dependent on the breakdown of what?
Glutamine
What is NOT a cause of Metabolic acidosis
Excessive water consumption
What would NOT be the result of acidosis
Increased appetite
What is NOT a risk factor for Breast Cancer?
Age
What is the first stage of menses
Menstrual
What do sodium levels in the blood affect?
Plasma volume, blood pressure, and extracellular fluid volume
Which of the following are true? (multiple select)
Aldosterone plays the biggest role in regulating sodium through the kidneys
RAAS is responsible for releasing aldosterone
How does potassium relate to electrical conduction in the heart?
Potassium affects RMP in excitable cells, reducing excitability
Where does the most important buffer system of the body occur?
Bicarbonate regulation occurs in the kidneys
Which of the following is an indication of metabolic acidosis?
Persistent diarrhea with a pH of 6.71
Muscular cramping, cerebral edema, and possibly death are symptoms of what?
Renal insufficiency
An accumulation of interstitial fluid that can potentially impair tissue function is called what?
Edema
Weight loss, fever, mental confusion, and decrease of electrolytes is caused by what condition?
Dehydration
Obligatory water losses are characterized by insensible water loss from lungs and _______ while sensible water loss from urine, sweat, and ______ is more commonly known.
Skin; feces
Why is dehydration so dangerous to fluid balance in the body?
the excessive loss of water from the extracellular fluid causes cells to shrink from water loss
How does the negative feedback pathway originating with hypothalamic osmoreceptors work?
Hypothalamic receptors sense decreased extracellular fluid osmolality and then inhibits ADH release
How does the negative feedback pathway originating with blood vessel baroreceptors work?
Decreased blood pressure increases ADH levels
Why is sodium important for the body? (Select all that apply)?
Sodium helps maintain our renal acid-base homeostasis + Sodium significantly affects osmotic pressure + Sodium affects extracellular fluid volume and thus affects blood pressure
Why are abnormal levels of potassium dangerous for the body?
Increased levels of potassium decreases the resting membrane potential, causing depolarization and reduced excitability of our cardiac cells
How do the kidneys regulate acid-base homeostasis (select all that apply)?
The kidneys secrete or excrete H+
The kidneys regulate the amount of bicarbonate in the blood
(Paragraph 14) What can cause metabolic acidosis?
Persistent diarrhea
Which buffer system can regulate pH both intracellularly and extracellularly?
Bicarbonate
What substance homeostasis is vital to proper heart function as well as buffer systems?
Potassium
What substance does Renin cleave?
Angiotensinogen
What is the key electrolyte for regulating blood volume and blood pressure?
Sodium
What are considered electrolytes?
Acids, bases, proteins
Which of the following is not a function of the minerals provided by electrolytes?
Cell communication
Which of the following is caused by Calcium deficiencies
Cramps in skeletal muscles
Sodium is greater than what percentage of cations in the extracellular fluid?
90%
Where does the bicarbonate and hydrogen regulation occur in the body
The kidneys
What type of cravings would a person experience if they had an electrolyte deficiency?
Salty or sour foods
What happens to the cells when the patient is dehydrated
Excess loss of water from extracellular fluids causes cells to shrink
Extracellular fluid has decreased concentrations of proteins with what major ions?
Na+ and Cl-
How does a decrease in ADH affect the body
Decrease in body water output
What is the healthy relationship between water intake and output
They should be equal
Which of the following statements about body water content is correct?
Adipose tissue is the least hydrated tissue in the body, contributing to lower body water percentages in females
Which ions are abundant in intracellular fluid?
K+ and HPO4^2-
What happens when extracellular fluid becomes hypertonic?
Water moves out of the cell
Which of the following triggers a decrease in ADH release?
Activation of baroreceptors
Which of the following is an example of obligatory insensible water loss?
Water vapor from lungs
How is “total body water” of extracellular fluid (ECF) divided in the body?
1/3
What does the passive transport mechanism cause hypotonic and hypertonic solutions to do?
Move water in and out of a cell
What regulates water intake and output?
Feedback mechanisms
What is the function of a baroreceptor?
Maintain homeostasis of blood pressure
What does the condition “cotton mouth” cause in a person?
Weight loss
What is osmotic power, and how does it influence water movement in fluid compartments?
The ability of solutes to generate pressure that moves water across membranes
How does extracellular fluid osmolality affect the direction of water movement in and out of cells?
It determines whether water enters or leaves the cell
What is the difference in water movement between hypertonic and hypotonic solutions?
Hypotonic solutions cause water to move into the cell; hypertonic move it out
Why do electrolytes have greater osmotic strength compared to nonelectrolytes?
They disassociate into multiple particles, increasing osmotic effect
What happens when MgCl₂ dissociates in water, and how does this relate to osmotic strength?
It dissociates into three ions, increasing osmotic power
Explain the characteristics of obligatory water loss
Loss from lungs and skin.
Which of these drive cellular water movement?
Osmosis
What is used to counteract renal insufficiency
A hypertonic saline IV
What receptor type that is in the blood vessels that aids with water intake and output?
Baroreceptors
What is the number 1 killer of burns
Dehydration
What hormone plays the biggest role in the regulation of sodium by the kidneys?
Aldosterone
The major buffer system of the body is
a. Bicarbonate
b. Phosphate
c. Protein
Which of these do not cause metabolic acidosis?
Overeating
Which of these is not an issue associated with a blood pH above 7.8
Hyperactivity
Which of these is NOT a common electrolyte?
Peptides
Which of these does a change in sodium levels not affect?
Blood sugar
Aldosterone’s release is dependent on what?
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
What body part has the most water
Muscle
What are the two main fluid compartments?
Intracellular and extracellular
What does a hypotonic solution do?
Moves water into cells
What does ADH do?
Keeps water in the body
What’s the difference between dehydration and hypotonic hydration?
Dehydration = too little water; Hypotonic hydration = too much water
Why do elderly individuals tend to have lower total body water percentages compared to younger adults?
Because they have a higher proportion of adipose tissue and less muscle mass
How does antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulate water balance in the kidneys?
By increasing water reabsorption in the collecting ducts
Why do hypertonic solutions draw water out of cells?
Because they have a higher solute concentration than the intracellular fluid
How do osmoreceptors contribute to the thirst mechanism?
By sensing changes in extracellular fluid osmolality and stimulating the hypothalamus
Explain why edema occurs in patients with poor lymphatic return or low plasma protein levels.
Because fluid accumulates in interstitial spaces due to poor reabsorption or drainage
Which of the following best explains why adult males typically have more body water than adult females?
Males have a higher ratio of muscle to fat
What portion of the extracellular fluid is made up by interstitial fluid?
80%
Which of the following is a non-electrolyte?
Glucose
What is the result of increased osmolality in the extracellular fluid?
Activation of osmoreceptors and ADH// release’
What fluid shift occurs in a hypotonic environment
Water enters the cell
What effect does atrial natriuretic peptide have on the release of ADH and
aldosterone?
It inhibits the release of both
Which of the following triggers the release of renin in the RAAS pathway?
Increased potassium levels
What happens to resting membrane potential (RMP) when extracellular potassium increases?
RMP becomes less negative, decreasing excitability
Which hormone is responsible for increasing calcium reabsorption and decreasing phosphate ion reabsorption in the kidneys?
PTH
Why is the bicarbonate buffer system considered the most important in the body?
It buffers both the extracellular and intracellular fluids
What is the typical percentage of body water in skeletal muscle for an adult?
78%
What is body water made up of when divided into extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF)?
1/3 ECF and 2/3 ICF
What is the composition of extracellular fluid?
20% blood plasma and 80% interstitial fluid
What is the ideal level of water intake daily?
2.5L
What are the receptors that are responsible for regulating thirst and sensing osmolarity in (ECF)?
Hypothalamus
What is the main purpose of sodium in the body?
Sodium helps maintain fluid balance and blood pressure.
What does aldosterone control in the blood volume?
Aldosterone increases sodium.
Why is maintaining electrolyte balance important?
Maintain normal muscle and nerve function.
Which condition is characterized by excessive water intake leading to dilution of body fluids?
Hypotonic Hydration
What is one of the main functions of maintaining electrolyte balance in the body?
Maintenance of nerve and muscle function
Water intake needs to be what amount in order to equal water output?
2.5 L
When it comes to burns or viral and bacterial infections, what is the number one killer?
Dehydration
What is the primary fluid compartment that contains about two-thirds of the body’s water?
Intracellular Fluid (ICF)
Which part of the brain regulates thirst in response to changes in osmolality?
Hypothalamus
Which of the following factors primarily influences the homeostatic control of water content in the human body?
Osmolarity of Body Fluids