Comm 122 Exam 1 Flashcards

• Definition: Mass production and commodification of cultural products in capitalist societies.
• Key Aspects:
  1. Standardization: Homogenization of cultural expression.
  2. Mass Production: Widespread, easily reproducible content.
  3. Manipulation: Shapes public opinion, reinforces dominant ideologies.
  4. Entertainment as Distraction: Serves to distract and escape, fostering social conformity.

1. Audience as Commodity:
   • Media institutions often treat the audience as a commodity, selling access to their attention to advertisers.
   • Audience preferences and behaviors are monitored and analyzed to tailor content that attracts advertisers.
2. Media as Commodity:
   • The media itself becomes a commodity, producing content that attracts advertisers and generates revenue.
   • Commercial interests may influence the content produced, leading to a focus on popular and marketable topics.

• Shaping Content: Ideology influences media industries, shaping the creation and presentation of content.
• Reproduction: Media can reproduce dominant ideologies, reinforcing societal norms.
• Challenge: Some media challenge hegemonic views, providing alternative narratives.
• Complex Interplay: Media's relationship with ideology is multifaceted, impacted by diverse factors such as ownership, audience reception, and cultural context

• Reproduction: Media often reproduces hegemonic views, reinforcing societal norms.
• Challenge: Some media challenges hegemony, presenting alternative perspectives.
• Complex Dynamics: Relationship influenced by diverse factors like ownership, audience reception, and cultural context.

• Circumscribed: Media workers' agency is limited or circumscribed by industry structures, editorial policies, and corporate interests.
• Constraints: While they have some influence, decisions are often shaped by external factors, impacting content production.
• Navigating Boundaries: Media workers operate within confines, negotiating professional roles amid organizational constraints.

• Editorial Policies: Guiding content creation within set guidelines.
• Corporate Interests: Influence from owners and advertisers.
• Advertising Revenue: Need to cater content to attract advertisers.
• Political Influence: Restrictions aligned with prevailing political views.
• Legal Frameworks: Operating within legal boundaries.
• Budgetary Limitations: Impact on depth and scope of reporting.
• Audience Preferences: Shaping content based on market demands.
• Technological Limits: Mandated tools and platforms by the organization.

• Mass Media (20th Century):
  • Characteristics: Standardized, one-size-fits-all content.
  • Production: Centralized, few channels, limited audience interaction.
  • Control: Top-down, producers dictate content.
  • Audience: Passive consumers of predefined content.
• Mass Customization (Today):
  • Characteristics: Tailored, personalized content.
  • Production: Decentralized, diverse platforms, high audience interaction.
  • Control: User-centric, individuals curate content.
  • Audience: Active participants, shaping content preferences.

Academic discipline examining structures, practices, and effects of media institutions. Explores production, distribution, consumption, and societal impacts across various media forms. Investigates economic, technological, and cultural influences on media industries.

• Definition: Mass production and commodification of cultural products in capitalist societies (an economic and social system characterized by private ownership of the means of production and the pursuit of profit).
• Key Aspects: Standardization, mass production, manipulation of public opinion, and entertainment as a form of distraction.

• Definition: Legal rights protecting creations of the mind, such as inventions, literary and artistic works, designs, symbols, names, and images used in commerce.

• Definition: A social space, physical or virtual, where individuals engage in open discourse and debate on matters of public interest, contributing to the formation of public opinion.

• Definition: Prevailing set of beliefs, values, and norms that are widely accepted and reinforce the existing social, political, and economic structures within a society.

• Definition: Limited individual influence or freedom of action for media professionals within the constraints of industry structures, editorial policies, and corporate interests.

• Definition: The creation and distribution of standardized media content on a large scale, characteristic of traditional mass media in the 20th century.

• Definition: Tailoring and personalization of media content to meet individual preferences and interests, reflecting the shift from standardized mass production to individualized content experiences in today's information economy.

• Definition: A small, specialized segment of the population with specific interests or characteristics, often targeted by media content providers for tailored and focused communication.

• Types: News articles, films, TV shows, music, books, social media content.
• Uniqueness: Immaterial nature, easily replicable, and often intangible, allowing for broad distribution and consumption.

• • Non-Excludable: Difficult to exclude individuals from access once produced.
  • Non-Rivalrous: Consumption by one person does not reduce availability for others.
• Rationale: Shared information benefits society collectively, making it similar to a public good where widespread access enhances public welfare.

• Why: Information products exhibit these characteristics based on access models:
  • Semi-Private: Limited access for those who pay.
  • Collective: Shared among specific groups or communities.
  • Public: Freely available to everyone, enhancing overall societal welfare.

1. Public Goods:
   • Non-Excludable: Difficult to exclude individuals from using the good.
   • Non-Rivalrous: Consumption by one person does not reduce its availability to others.
   • Examples: Public parks, national defense, street lighting.
2. Private Goods:
   • Excludable: Possible to prevent individuals from using the good.
   • Rivalrous: Consumption by one person reduces its availability to others.
   • Examples: Clothing, electronics, food items.
3. Common Pool Resources (CPR):
   • Non-Excludable: Difficult to exclude individuals from using the resource.
   • Rivalrous: Consumption by one person reduces its availability to others.
   • Examples: Fisheries, irrigation systems, pastureland.
4. Club Goods (Quasi-Public Goods):
   • Excludable: Possible to exclude individuals from using the good.
   • Non-Rivalrous: Consumption by one person does not reduce its availability to others.
   • Examples: Cable television, private parks, subscription-based digital services.

• Definition: In a dual-product market, firms produce and sell two distinct but interrelated products.
• Media Markets: Media markets are considered dual-product markets because media firms offer content (e.g., news, entertainment) as well as an audience to advertisers.
• Interrelation: The content attracts audiences, and the audience, in turn, becomes a product sold to advertisers, creating a symbiotic relationship.

• Fragmentation: Diverse media options lead to audience fragmentation.
• Competition: Intense competition for audience attention and advertising revenue.
• Technological Change: Rapid advancements require continuous adaptation.
• Globalization: Global competition and distribution challenges.
• Financial Pressures: Economic uncertainties impacting funding and profitability.

• Uniqueness: High initial production costs but relatively low marginal costs for distribution.
• Impact on Risk: High upfront investment creates financial risk, but lower distribution costs reduce ongoing financial risks, making profitability sensitive to achieving initial success and reaching a broad audience.

• Diversification: Investing in a variety of content genres/platforms to spread risk.
• Franchising: Extending successful content or brand into related products.
• Syndication: Licensing content to other platforms or regions.
• Co-Production: Collaborating with other firms to share costs and risks.
• Audience Research: Informed decision-making based on audience preferences and market trends.

• Why: To maintain control, maximize profits, and shape consumer behavior.
• How: Through strategies like limited releases, exclusive content, or controlled access, media industries manipulate the availability of information or products, creating perceived scarcity to increase demand and value.

• Non-Excludable: Difficult to exclude individuals from using the good.
• Non-Rivalrous: Consumption by one person does not reduce its availability to others.
• Examples: Public parks, national defense, street lighting.

• Excludable: Possible to prevent individuals from using the good.
• Rivalrous: Consumption by one person reduces its availability to others.
• Examples: Clothing, electronics, food items.

• Non-Excludable: Difficult to exclude individuals from using the resource.
• Rivalrous: Consumption by one person reduces its availability to others.
• Examples: Fisheries, irrigation systems, pastureland.

• Excludable: Possible to exclude individuals from using the good.
• Non-Rivalrous: Consumption by one person does not reduce its availability to others.
• Examples: Cable television, private parks, subscription-based digital services.

• Definition: A market in which firms produce and sell two interrelated products. In media, this typically involves offering content to attract audiences (product 1) and selling access to those audiences to advertisers (product 2).

• Definition: Cost advantages achieved by a firm when producing a variety of products or services rather than specializing in a single product. Economies of scope result from shared resources, technologies, and expertise, reducing overall production costs.

• Definition: Cost advantages gained by a firm through increased production levels, leading to lower average production costs per unit. Economies of scale result from spreading fixed costs over a larger output, improving efficiency and reducing per-unit costs.

• Definition: Refers to the uncertainty in predicting audience preferences and the success of media products. Despite market research and industry expertise, predicting what will become popular is challenging, and success often involves unpredictable factors.

• Definition: Expenditure that has been incurred and cannot be recovered. Sunk costs are irrelevant to future decision-making since the money spent is unrecoverable, and decisions should be based on prospective costs and benefits.

• Definition: The initial cost incurred in producing the first unit of a product. It includes expenses related to research, development, and setup. While subsequent units may have lower production costs, the first copy cost is significant and often influences pricing strategies.

• Definition: Deliberate manipulation of the availability of goods or information to create a sense of scarcity, increasing their perceived value and demand. Media industries may employ strategies like limited releases or exclusive content to artificially restrict access, influencing consumer behavior.

• Definition: A business strategy where a company controls multiple stages of the production or distribution process within its industry. It involves ownership or control over various levels of the supply chain, from raw materials to the final product or service. Vertical integration aims to increase efficiency, reduce costs, and enhance control over the production and distribution process.

• Definition: A business strategy where a company expands its operations within the same industry by acquiring or merging with competitors that operate at the same stage of the production or distribution process. Horizontal integration aims to increase market share, reduce competition, and achieve economies of scale by consolidating similar businesses or services.

• Definition: The process of a company diversifying its business activities by acquiring or merging with firms in different industries. Conglomerates are characterized by their ownership of a diverse range of businesses that may not be directly related. This strategy aims to spread risk, achieve financial stability, and capitalize on opportunities in various markets.

• Definition: A marketing strategy where two or more products, services, or brands mutually promote each other to leverage their respective audiences. Cross-promotion can involve joint advertising campaigns, bundling products, or collaborative events, aiming to enhance visibility, increase sales, and create synergies between the promoted entities.

• Definition: The process of selling the rights to a specific format or template of a media product, allowing other entities to produce adaptations or localized versions. This strategy is common in television, where a successful show's format may be sold to be recreated in different markets with regional variations.

• Definition: A product that has established recognition, familiarity, and a positive reputation among consumers. Known products benefit from brand loyalty, consumer trust, and a proven track record in the market.

• Definition: The interconnectedness and integration of media systems, content, and communication technologies on a global scale. Media globalization involves the dissemination of information, cultural products, and media services across borders, creating a more interconnected and interdependent global media landscape.

• Main Incentive: Economic growth and increased revenue.
• Importance of Global Markets: Access to larger audiences, diverse markets, and potential for higher profits. Global expansion allows U.S. media firms to capitalize on emerging markets, cultural diversity, and the demand for American media products worldwide.

• Why U.S. Firms Enjoy It:
  • Early entry and establishment in global markets.
  • Development of brand recognition and customer loyalty.
  • Ability to set industry standards and influence market trends.
• Benefits for Global Position:
  • Higher market share and visibility.
  • Establishing relationships with local distributors and partners.
  • Gaining insights into local consumer preferences.
  • Ability to shape the global media landscape, influencing content trends and industry norms.

• Market Size: Saturation in domestic markets drives firms to seek growth opportunities globally.
• Economic Incentives: Potential for increased revenue and profit in larger and emerging markets.
• Cultural Influence: Spreading American culture and values worldwide through media products.
• Technological Advancements: Access to new technologies facilitates global distribution and audience reach.
• Competitive Pressures: Staying ahead of global competitors by expanding into diverse markets.
• Content Accessibility: Meeting the demand for U.S. media content in various regions.
• Strategic Alliances: Forming partnerships and collaborations with international media entities.
• Diversification: Reducing reliance on a single market and spreading business risks.

• Cultural Sensitivity: Adapting content to diverse cultural norms and preferences.
• Regulatory Compliance: Navigating different regulatory frameworks and censorship laws.
• Local Competition: Facing competition from established local media entities.
• Language Barriers: Addressing linguistic challenges for effective communication.
• Distribution Logistics: Managing complex global distribution networks.
• Political Instability: Dealing with political uncertainties in various regions.
• Technological Adaptation: Adjusting to varying technological infrastructures.
• Financial Risks: Managing currency fluctuations and economic uncertainties.

• Definition: Markets defined by both geographic and cultural characteristics, reflecting shared cultural traits within specific regions.

Pros for Worldwide Media Distribution:

1. Cultural Relevance: Tailoring content to specific geo-cultural markets enhances cultural resonance and audience engagement.
2. Localization Opportunities: Allows for effective localization, addressing linguistic, cultural, and contextual preferences.
3. Regional Synergies: Leveraging shared cultural elements can lead to regional synergies and cohesive marketing strategies.

Cons for Worldwide Media Distribution:

1. Fragmentation: Challenges arise in managing diverse content versions for various geo-cultural markets.
2. Costs of Localization: Customizing content for different regions incurs additional production and distribution costs.
3. Cultural Misalignment: Misinterpretation or mismatch of cultural elements may lead to unintended consequences or negative reception.

• TV Adaptations:
  • Definition: Recreating a television show in a different cultural or linguistic context, often involving changes to suit local preferences.
  • Example: "The Office" adapted in multiple countries with alterations to characters, setting, and humor to fit cultural nuances.
  • Key Aspect: Emphasizes cultural adaptation to create a version relevant to a specific audience.
• Format Sales:
  • Definition: Selling the rights to the overall structure or concept of a TV show, allowing the buyer to produce their own version with local adaptations.
  • Example: "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?" sold as a format, leading to various international versions with local hosts and adaptations.
  • Key Aspect: Involves selling the blueprint or concept, allowing flexibility for adaptation while maintaining the original show's core structure.

• Definition: The concept that dominant cultures, often from economically powerful nations, exert influence and control over the cultural practices and values of less powerful nations, leading to homogenization or domination of global cultural expressions.
• Key Aspect: Implies a power imbalance in which the cultural products and values of dominant nations are imposed on others, potentially eroding local cultures and diversity.
• Critiques: Critics argue that it oversimplifies complex interactions, overlooking instances of resistance, negotiation, and the global circulation of diverse cultural expressions.

1. Dubbing and Subtitling:
   • Strategy: Adapting content linguistically to overcome language barriers.
   • Example: Hollywood films in China often undergo dubbing or subtitling to enhance accessibility for the local audience.
2. Localization and Adaptation:
   • Strategy: Customizing content to align with cultural norms and preferences.
   • Example: Hollywood studios may alter plot elements or character traits in films to better resonate with Chinese cultural values.
3. Format Sales:
   • Strategy: Selling the rights to the format, allowing local adaptation.
   • Example: Hollywood formats sold to Chinese production companies for localized versions, ensuring cultural relevance.
4. Co-Productions:
   • Strategy: Collaborating with local partners to navigate regulatory requirements and cultural nuances.
   • Example: Hollywood and Chinese film industry collaborations, such as joint productions, facilitate smoother access to the Chinese market.
5. Revenue Sharing:
   • Strategy: Sharing profits with local distributors or partners.
   • Example: Hollywood studios agreeing to revenue-sharing models with Chinese cinemas to establish mutually beneficial partnerships.
6. Payment of Access and Distribution Fees:
   • Strategy: Paying fees to navigate local regulatory environments.
   • Example: Hollywood studios complying with Chinese censorship regulations by paying required fees for access and distribution.

• Definition: The assertion of dominance by one culture, often economically or politically powerful, over others, influencing and shaping their cultural practices, values, and expressions. Cultural imperialism can lead to a homogenization of global culture, where the values and products of the dominant culture become prevalent worldwide.

• Concept: Refers to the competitive edge gained by media firms that are the first to enter a new market or introduce a new product or service.
• Key Aspects:
  • Brand Establishment: Early entrants can establish strong brand recognition.
  • Audience Capture: Securing a significant share of the target audience before competitors enter.
  • Innovation Leadership: First movers often set industry standards, influencing content trends and technological advancements.
• Benefits: Increased market share, brand loyalty, and the potential to shape the industry landscape.
• Challenges: Sustaining innovation and adapting to changing market dynamics to maintain the advantage over time

• Definition: The process of adapting media content, such as films, TV shows, or video games, to suit the linguistic, cultural, and contextual preferences of a specific local audience.
• Key Aspects:
  • Language: Translating dialogues, subtitles, or voiceovers to the local language.
  • Cultural Nuances: Adjusting content elements to align with local cultural norms and sensitivities.
  • Contextual Relevance: Tailoring references, settings, or visuals to resonate with the target audience.
• Purpose: Enhances the accessibility and appeal of media products in diverse markets, ensuring they connect effectively with local viewers or users.

• Definition: A directive or authorization, often from a government or regulatory body, specifying guidelines, restrictions, or requirements related to media operations, content, or distribution within a particular jurisdiction.
• Purpose: Establishes the framework for media entities to operate within legal and ethical boundaries, ensuring compliance with established standards and regulations.
• Examples: Mandates may cover issues such as censorship, content ratings, diversity requirements, or guidelines for fair reporting in the media industry.

a clear mission or mandate serves as a foundational framework for media institutions, shaping their identity, influencing their behavior, and contributing to their impact on society.

US: Commerical

Others: State-affiliated

• Primary Beneficiary: Advertisers and businesses.
• Revenue Source: Advertising and audience engagement.
• Operational Focus: Maximizing profitability by attracting a large audience for advertisers, often shaping content to cater to audience preferences and advertiser interests.
• Goal: Generate revenue through advertising, sponsorships, and audience-driven content, with the aim of sustaining and growing the media business.

• Determinants:
  • Audience Size: Large and engaged audience numbers are crucial for attracting advertisers.
  • Advertising Revenue: Successful media outlets generate substantial income through advertising and sponsorships.
  • Market Share: Dominating the market and outperforming competitors.
  • Profitability: Consistent financial growth and profitability.
  • Brand Recognition: Establishing a strong brand presence in the media landscape.
• Key Metric: Financial success, often measured by revenue, profit margins, and market share, is a primary indicator of success in the commercial media model.

shifting from traditional advertising to paid subscriptions

Benefits:

1. Financial Resources: Enables investment in high-quality content.
2. Innovation: Encourages creative and diverse content formats.
3. Wide Audience Reach: Reaches a broad and diverse viewership.
4. Competitive Environment: Drives competition for compelling content.
5. Adaptability: Allows responsiveness to changing audience preferences.

Limitations:

1. Advertiser Influence: Risks conflicts of interest and advertiser influence.
2. Sensationalism: May prioritize sensational content over informative journalism.
3. Homogenization: Potential for producing content with mass appeal.
4. Short-Term Focus: Prioritizes short-term gains over long-term reporting.
5. Audience Manipulation: Emphasis on grabbing attention may manipulate perceptions.
6. Economic Vulnerability: Susceptible to economic fluctuations and shifts in advertising trends.
7. Access Barriers: May restrict access to premium content through paywalls.

1. Funding Structure:
   • Commercial Media: Relies on advertising and commercial activities for profits.
   • Non-Profit Media: Depends on grants, donations, and public funding.
2. Profit Orientation:
   • Commercial Media: Driven by profit motives for shareholders or owners.
   • Non-Profit Media: Focuses on public service, education, or advocacy without profit as the primary goal.
3. Content Prioritization:
   • Commercial Media: Influenced by audience preferences and market demands.
   • Non-Profit Media: Guided by a commitment to public interest and community service.
4. Sustainability Model:
   • Commercial Media: Sustains through audience and advertiser revenue.
   • Non-Profit Media: Depends on philanthropy, grants, and community support.
5. Ownership Structure:
   • Commercial Media: Private or publicly traded companies.
   • Non-Profit Media: Operates as a non-profit organization.
6. Audience Relationship:
   • Commercial Media: Emphasizes audience engagement for advertising.
   • Non-Profit Media: Prioritizes community and public engagement.

1. Governmental Non-Profit Media:
   • Ownership and Funding: Typically owned or funded by government entities.
   • Mandate: Often serves as a public service broadcaster with a focus on providing information, education, and cultural programming that aligns with government objectives.
   • Audience Reach: Aims to reach a national or regional audience, often emphasizing content diversity and cultural representation.
2. Public Non-Profit Media:
   • Ownership and Funding: Governed by an independent board or trust, funded by a mix of public support, grants, and donations.
   • Mandate: Strives to provide a diverse range of content that caters to public interests, education, and cultural enrichment. May focus on unbiased journalism and community engagement.
   • Audience Reach: Targets a broad public audience, often emphasizing inclusivity and representing a spectrum of perspectives.
3. Community-Based Non-Profit Media:
   • Ownership and Funding: Owned or operated by local communities, relying on community support, grants, and donations.
   • Mandate: Focuses on serving the specific needs and interests of the local community. Often emphasizes grassroots journalism, cultural representation, and community empowerment.
   • Audience Reach: Primarily serves a localized or niche audience, addressing specific community concerns and fostering community participation.

Governmental Media Control:

• Control: Government entities have direct ownership or significant influence over these media outlets, shaping content and messaging in alignment with government interests.

Examples of State-Run Media

1. CCTV (China Central Television):
   • Ownership: Operated by the Chinese government.
   • Mandate: Propagates government-approved content, aligning with Chinese Communist Party ideologies.
2. RT (Russia Today):
   • Ownership: Funded by the Russian government.
   • Mandate: Projects the Russian government's perspective on international news and events.
3. Al Jazeera:
   • Ownership: Initially funded by the Qatari government.
   • Mandate: Emphasizes editorial independence; however, the initial funding source sparked debates about influence.

1. Government Media:
   • Control: Direct ownership or significant control by government entities.
   • Funding: Primarily funded by government budgets.
   • Mandate: Often aligns with government interests, serving as a mouthpiece for official perspectives.
   • Examples: BBC (UK), CCTV (China), RT (Russia Today).
2. Public Media:
   • Control: Operated independently or by an independent board, with less direct government influence.
   • Funding: Supported by a mix of public funds, donations, grants, and sponsorships.
   • Mandate: Focuses on serving public interests, diverse viewpoints, and educational content.
   • Examples: PBS (U.S.), ABC (Australia), CBC (Canada).

viewer and listener contributions

License Fees

• public Service Impact:
  • Educational Value.
  • Cultural Contribution.
• Audience Engagement:
  • Viewer/Listener Satisfaction.
  • Reach and Accessibility.
• Independence and Integrity:
  • Editorial Independence.
  • Ethical Standards.
• Community Connection:
• Community Outreach.
• Representation.
• Public Trust and Reputation:
  • Trustworthiness.
  • Positive Public Perception.

• Definition: Community media involves locally-driven content creation, often by and for a specific community. It emphasizes community engagement, participation, and representation.

Examples:

1. Community Radio Stations:
   • Example: Local radio stations run by community members, addressing local issues and interests.
2. Community Television Channels:
   • Example: Local TV channels focusing on community events, news, and cultural programming.
3. Community Newspapers:
   • Example: Local newspapers catering to community-specific news, events, and concerns.

Benefits:

1. Public Service Focus: Serves the public interest with educational content.
2. Independence: Emphasizes editorial independence and objectivity.
3. Diverse Funding: Relies on varied sources like donations and grants.
4. Community Engagement: Actively involves communities in content creation.
5. Mission-Driven: Prioritizes content aligned with public service goals.

Limitations:

1. Financial Challenges: Faces instability and constraints due to donation dependence.
2. Limited Commercial Revenue: Struggles with generating commercial income.
3. Donor Influence: Risk of donor influence impacting editorial independence.
4. Restricted Scale: May have challenges reaching a broad audience.
5. Sustainability Concerns: Long-term sustainability can be challenging without stable funding.